/rsClENCE>* 

■OF  ■ 

KNITTING 


1 


t  ERNEST  TOMPKINS  " 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2015 


https://archive.org/details/scienceofknittinOOtomp_0 


THE 

SCIENCE  OF  KNITTING 

\N  ILLUSTRATED  REFERENCE  BOOK  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY 
'PRINCIPLES  OF  KNIT  FABRICS  AND  MACHINE  KNITTING, 
INCLUDING  FUNDAMENTAL  CONVENTIONS,  DEFINI- 
TIONS, RULES,  FORMULAS  AND  TABLES,  FOR 
THE  STUDENT,  OPERATOR,  MANU- 
^  FACTURER  AND  ANALYST 


WRITTEN  BY 

ERNEST  TOMPKINS,^  M.  E.  . 

THE*  WIlJdMAN  MFG.  CO. 

NOR  i^tjrrc)\\nsr,  pju.  t  *  •  •  * '  •        w  •*  • 


FIRST  EDITION 

FIRST  THOUSAND 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  Inc. 

London:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Ltd. 
1914 


QJO/VS  - 


Copyright,  1914, 

BY 

WTLDMAN  MFG.  CO. 


Copyrighted,  1914,     Great  Britain 


Stanbopc  iprcss 

F.  H.GILSON  COMPANY 
BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  was  begun  as  a  proprietary  publication,  but  as  it 
soon  developed  beyond  the  scope  of  such  a  work  it  was  turned 
into  a  scientific  handbook  for  general  use  by  the  exclusion  from 
the  text  of  everything  of  an  advertising  nature,  and  by  the  addi- 
tion of  what  seemed  to  be  the  most  desirable  technical  informa- 
tion available.  It  is  believed  that  the  work  will  be  of  use  in 
promoting  the  progress  of  the  knitting  industry. 

WILDMAN  MFG.  CO. 
Norristown,  Pa. 


CONTENTS 


Topics  only.  See  lists  of  illustrations  and  of  tables  following  this,  and  index 
at  back  of  book. 

Page 


Preface   iii 

Conventions   1 

Abbreviations   2 

Suggestions  for  a  course  of  reading  (with  subdivisions, 

which  see)   2 

Yarn  diameter   12 

Elements  of  knitting  (with  subdivisions,  which  see)   14 

Practical  variations  from  knitting  rules  (with  subdivisions, 

which  see)   34 

Explanation  of  formulas  for  regular  rib  fabrics   36 

Explanation  of  regular  flat  fabric  formulas  —  loop-wheel .  .  45 

Yarn-cut  rules   49 

Yarn-gauge  rules   51 

The  relation  of  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  to  the  needle 

spacing   53 

Width  of  flattened  tube  of  fabric  for  different  numbers  of 

needles  and  yarn   57 

Width  of  fabric  from  different  machines   63 

Production  of  circular  knitting  machines  (with  subdivisions, 

which  see)   66 

Relative  production  of  different  types  of  knitting  machine .  84 

Weight  per  square  yard  formula  —  derivation   89 

Determining  weight  per  square  yard  by  weighing   95 

Two-thread  knitting  (with  subdivisions,  which  see)   95 

Twist  in  flat  knit  fabric  made  with  self -feeding  needles 

(with  subdivisions,  which  see)   101 

Twist  in  rib  fabric   112 

Summary  regarding  twist  of  knit  fabrics  (with  subdivisions, 

which  see)   113 

Set   116 

Space  allotment  in   knitting  mills   (with  subdivisions, 

which  see)   117 

V 


vi  Contents 

Page 

Relation  of  machine  gauge  and  cut   124 

Gauge,  different  standards   125 

Needles  per  inch  of  hosiery  machines  and  ribbers  measured 

from  back  to  back  of  needles   128 

Range  of  fabrics  from  the  same  gauge  or  cut   138 

Yarn  for  flat  cotton  fleece  goods   138 

Sinker  bur   140 

Lander  bur   146 

Cast-off  bur   147 

Trouble,  cause  and  remedy  —  spring-needle  loop-wheel. .  . .  150 

Tuck-stitch  figures  —  latch-needle   153 

Vertical  patterns  in  latch-needle  knitting   155 

Names  of  cams   160 

Adjusting  in  general   160 

Putting  needles  into  ribber   161 

Hooking  fabric  on  ribber   164 

Ribber  take-up   166 

Locating  sources  of  trouble  in  rib  knitting   167 

Stitch  adjustment   168 

Adjusting  the  yarn  carrier   171 

Rib  knitting  —  trouble,  cause  and  remedy   171 

Yarn  counts  (with  subdivisions,  which  see)   187 

Counts  used  for  different  kinds  of  yarns  (with  subdivisions, 

which  see)   189 

Explanation  of  convenient  equations  for  determining  the 

number  of  yarn  in  the  constant  weight  counts   190 

Single  equivalent  of  two  or  more  yarns   192 

Explanation  of  yarn-transformation  table   193 

Yarn  rules  for  different  yarn  counts   193 

Figure  designing  with  pattern  wheels  (with  subdivisions, 

which  see)   199 

Economics  of  knitting  (with  subdivisions,  which  see)   249 

Minimum  weight  per  square  yard   263 

Theory  of  knit  fabrics  (with  subdivisions,  which  see)   266 

Theory  of  knit  fabrics  —  general  considerations   272 

Ratio  and  proportion  (with  subdivisions,  which  see)   276 

Measures   277 

Mensuration  (with  subdivisions,  which  see)   286 

Miscellaneous  notes  on  belting  (with  subdivisions,  which 

see)   290 

Analogies  between  the  flow  of  water  and  electricity   293 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


List  of  contents  (topics)  precedes  this.  List  of  tables  follows  this.  Index  ia 
at  back  of  book. 

D 

Number  Page 

Diagram  of  double  tucks  cleared  by  lap   46  246 

of  sample  design   42  235 

F 

Fabric,  circular,  ribbon  structure   4  202 

figured,  sample   41  232 

flat,  back   2  17 

face   1  16 

with  right-hand  twist   5  107 

range,  from  the  same  gauge  or  cut   1-2  138 

regular  relations   7  33 

relation  of  wales  and  courses  for  stitches  per  foot 

constant   5  28 

relation  of  width  and  breadth  for  stitches  per  foot 

constant   6  30 

rib,  effect  of  yarn  twist  on  fabric  twist   112 

regular  relations   2  270 

relations  for  yarn  variable   1  269 

with  wales  spread  apart   3  19 

K 

Knots   275 

L 

Loops,  normal  and  twisted,  outlines   4  106 

M 

Machine,  Machines,  diagram  of  American  circular. . .  3  202 

diagram  of  French  circular   2  202 

vii 


viii  Illustrations 

Number  Page 

Machine,  types  of  circular   1-8  204 

type  which  does  not  twist  yarn   *7  110 

type  which  twists  yarn   6  109 

N 

Needle,  latch,  with  double-thread  loops   2  100 

spring,  with  double-thread  loops   1  97 

P 

Pattern  developments: 

figure,  divided;  two-division  overlap  right-hand .  .  29  222 

two-division  underlap ;  right-hand   30  222 

incUned;  overlap;  right-hand   23  219 

vertical;  overlap;  left-hand   26  222 

over-lap ;  right-hand   24  219 

underlap;  left-hand   28  222 

underlap;  right-hand   27  222 

stripes,  diagonal;  overlap;  right-hand   22  219 

inchned;  overlap;  left-hand   25  222 

overlap;  right-hand   21  219 

vertical   20  219 

Pattern,  exception  to  general  rule                            47-50  247 

Pattern,  exceptional,  disposition  of  elements   51  248 

Pattern  lengths  usable  with  65  needles   40  229 

Pattern  models: 

figure,  incUned;  overlap;  right-hand   13  218 

vertical;  overlap;  right-hand   14  218 

stripes,  diagonal;  overlap;  right-hand   12  218 

inchned;  overlap;  right-hand   11  218 

vertical   10  218 

Patterns,  numerical,  of  five  divisions,  for  cylinder 
needles  equal  to: 

one  pattern  division   32  225 

two  pattern  divisions   33  225 

three  pattern  divisions   34  225 

four  pattern  divisions   35  225 

six  pattern  divisions   36  225 

seven  pattern  divisions   37  225 

eight  pattern  divisions   38  225 

nine  pattern  divisions   39  225 


Illustrations  ix 

Number  Page 

Pattern  positions,  plan   226 

Pattern,  strip,  detail   43  238 

Presser  model   44  240 

reversed   55  240 

positions   5  209 

S 

Stitch,  Stitches,  double  tuck   7  212 

single  tuck   6  211 

successive  tucks  in  the  same  course   8  213 

tight  rib   4  21 

tuck  block  in  a  mixed  field   9  215 

very  loose,  flat  fabric   1  264 

Y 

Yarn-cut  chart  for  latch-needle  rib  machine   50 

Yarn  delivery  from  bobbin  and  cone   2  104 

Yarn  diameter,  determination   13 

Yarn  diameter,  relation  to  needle  spacing   57 

Yarn-gauge  chart  for  spring-needle  machine   52 

Yarn  twist  illustrated  by  strip  of  paper  coiled  on 

pencil   1  102 


TABLES 


Contents  (topics)  and  list  of  illustrations  precedes  this.    Index  is  at  back 


of  book. 

A 

Page 

Abbreviations   2 

C 

Circles,  circumferences  and  areas   280 

Cuts,  measured  on  needle  line   130 

F 

Fabric,  Fabrics,  flat,  fundamental  relations   45 

flat,  regular  dimensions   48 

formulas   46-47 

rib,  fundamental  relations   36 

regular  formulas   38-39 

dimensions   40 

weight  per  square  yard   90-91 

weight  formula  for  different  counts   94 

transformations   93 

width,  proportion  of  machine  width   65 

tubular,  width   59 

Feeds  and  pattern  divisions  for  24  courses   235 

G 

Gauge,  definitions   127 

I 

Inch,  fractions,  decimal  equivalents   277 

Inventions,  knitting   265 

K 

Knitting,  latch-needle;  trouble,  cause  and  remedy   172 

spring-needle;  trouble,  cause  and  remedy   150 

xi 


xii 


Tables 


M 

Page 

Machine,  body,  latch-needle,  performance   185 

Motions,  machines  and  fabric   204r-205 

N 

Needle,  Needles,  cyUnder,  for  a  30  needle  pattern   237 

per  inch,  different  gauges   126 

measured  on  cam  surface   175 

simple  factors  for  small  machines   128 

simple  calculations   129 

spring,  dimensions  and  data   149 

in  loop-wheel  cylinders   154 

leaded,  weight  per  thousand   149 

Numbers,  squares,  cubes,  square  roots  and  cube  roots   278 

P 

Power,  electrical   294 

for  machines,  auxihary   121 

latch-needle  rib  and  winders   122 

loop  wheel   123 

knitting  miU   122-123 

leather  belt   289 

proportionate  distribution  in  knitting  mill   123 

transmitted  by  shafting   288 

Production,  calculations,  hanks   69 

linear  yards   68 

pounds   69 

square  yards   68 

factors,  rib  and  flat   89 

hnear  yards   76-77 

loop-wheel,  hanks   74 

relative,  rib  and  flat  fabrics   85-87-88 

rib  fabric,  hanks   73 

pounds   72 

rib  tops,  dozen  pairs   82-83 

square  yards,  general   79 

regular  fabric   81 

winder,  nutaper   114 

upright,  bobbin   115 


Tables  xiii 
R 

Page 

Ribber,  Wildman,  circumference   184 

diameter   184 

S 

Space,  floor,  in  knitting  mills   118 

Stitches,  maximum  and  minimum   186 

T 

Trigonometric  functions,  natural   282 

V 

Velocity  of  needles  and  yarn   159 

Y 

Yarn-cut  relations,  rib   73 

Yarn-gauge  and  yarn-cut  rules  for  different  counts   195 

Yarn,  Yarns,  counts,  convenient  equations  for  determining.  191 

counts,  definitions   188 

diameter  and  coils   196 

proportion  of  needle  spacing   56 

for  flat  cotton  fleeced  goods   139 

latch-needle  rib  machine   163 

loop-wheel  machine   129 

number  and  relative  diameter  and  cube  of  diameter .  .  .  262 

rules  for  different  machines   53 

single  equivalent  of  two  yarns   198 

transformation  constants   194 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  KNITTING 


CONVENTIONS 

The  meaning  of  many  of  the  technical  terms  used  in  this 
book  is  explained  when  they  are  brought  into  use,  but  the 
meaning  of  the  most  used  terms  and  conventions  is  given  here 
in  order  to  make  sure  that  they  will  be  understood  in  case  the 
explanation  may  not  be  with  them  when  they  are  encountered. 

Cut  is  used  instead  of  needles  per  inch,  both  because  it  is 
quite  generally  so  used  and  because  it  is  much  shorter  than 
needles  per  inch.  The  only  objection  to  its  use  is  that  it  might 
be  confused  with  the  word  cut  used  to  designate  the  size  of 
yarn,  but  since  the  yam  cut  is  restricted,  is  really  unnecessary, 
and  is  not  used  with  reference  to  the  machine,  there  is  not 
much  chance  for  confusion.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  good 
reasons  for  abandoning  it  in  favor  of  a  familiar  substitute,  such 
as  the  cotton  number,  and  leaving  the  word  cut  for  use  entirely 
instead  of  needles  per  inch. 

Right  Hand,  applied  to  circular  motion  (or  the  result  of  it), 
means  the  direction  of  revolution  of  a  right-hand  screw  when 
entering  a  solid  body. 

Clockwise  means  the  direction  of  motion  of  the  hands  of  a 
clock,  which  for  circular  motion  is  the  same  as  right  hand. 

Left  Hand  is  the  reverse  of  right  hand. 

Anti-clockwise  is  the  reverse  of  clockwise. 

Forward  means  the  direction  of  motion  of  whatever  is  the  sub- 
ject of  discussion  —  such  as  yarn,  machine,  fabric,  etc. 

Backward  means  the  reverse  of  forward. 

Number  means  yarn  number  in  the  cotton  count  unless 
otherwise  specified. 

A  Constant  means  a  number  which  does  not  change,  such  as 
3.1416,  the  number  which  expresses  the  ratio  of  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  to  its  diameter. 

A  Variable  means  a  number  which  does  change.  The  age  of 
anything  is  a  variable,  since  it  is  constantly  changing. 

1 


2 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Gauge,  applied  to  the  needle  spacing  or  to  the  fineness  of 
cloth,  means  needles  per  inch  and  one-half,  which  is  substan- 
tially the  original  meaning  of  the  word  as  applied  to  knitting. 

Gauge,  appHed  to  needles,  means  the  thickness  of  latch  needles. 
There  is]  no  rule  for  determining  the  gauge  from  this  dimension, 
so  tables  have  to  be  consulted  for  such  information.  Other 
dimensions  of  the  needle,  such  as  size  of  hook,  length  of  latch, 
etc.,  correspond  to  an  extent  to  the  gauge,  but  have  no  fixed 
relation  to  it.  For  instance,  a  48-gauge  needle  has  a  certain 
thickness  and  a  fine  hook,  but  the  hook  may  be  more  or  less  fine. 

Diametral  Revolutions  means  the  product  of  the  diameter  in 
inches  and  the  revolutions  per  minute  of  a  revolving  circle, 
such  as  a  knitting  machine,  pulley  or  similar  object.  A  20- 
inch  cylinder  making  35  revolutions  per  minute  is  running  at 
20  X  35  =  700  diametral  revolutions. 


Abbreviations 

Abbreviation  Meaning 

H-  Increased  by 

—  Decreased  by 

X  Multiplied  by 

■i-  Divided  by 

=  Equals 

dia.  Diameter 

r.p.m.  Revolutions  per  minute 

dia.  r.p.m.  Diametral  revolutions 

-y/  Square  root  of 

i.e.  That  is 

e.g.  For  instance 

q.v.  Which  see. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  COURSE  OF  READING 

If  all  knowledge  of  machine  knitting  were  taken  out  of  the 
world,  and  a  perfect  knitting  machine,  say  a  rib  body  machine 
for  example,  were  set  down  in  a  knitting  center,  such  as 
Leicester,  England,  or  Utica,  New  York,  with  no  more  informa- 
tion than  the  assurance  that  it  would  knit  cloth,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  after  repeated  efforts  to  hook  on  the  fabric  and  get  it 
started,  the  machine  would  be  so  damaged  and  the  operators  so 
discouraged,  that  it  would  be  pronounced  an  impossibihty  to 
make  cloth  on  such  a  machine. 


SuggcstioiLs  for  a  Course  of  Reading 


3 


Somewhat  similarly,  if  a  book  announcing  and  demonstrating 
a  system  of  knitting  calculations  is  put  into  the  hands  of  readers 
who  do  not  even  know  that  there  is  system  in  knitting,  and 
most  of  whom  are  unfamiliar  with  mathematical  demonstrations, 
such  a  book  would  not  be  very  beneficial  without  an  explanation 
of  how  to  use  it. 

Other  important  callings,  civil  engineering  and  mechanical 
engineering  for  examples,  have  their  handbooks;  but  before  the 
appearance  of  such  books,  the  readers  were  prepared  to  un- 
derstand them  by  technical  school  and  college  instruction. 

Moreover,  if  the  author  of  these  knitting  calculations  fre- 
quently finds  it  necessary  to  take  paper  and  pencil  and  carefully 
work  out  something  which  he  himself  has  written  in  order  to  re- 
understand  it,  how  much  more  will  assistance  be  useful  to  one 
w^ho  has  never  heard  of  a  knitting  system  and  has  never  been 
prepared  to  understand  one  if  it  should  appear. 

Although  the  above  considerations  show  the  advisabihty  of 
helps  in  the  use  of  this  book,  there  are  other  reasons  why  sym- 
path}^  for  the  knitter  and  his  calling  should  prompt  a  familiar 
attempt  to  improve  both,  in  spite  of  the  prevailing  unsympa- 
thetic custom  of  disseminating  cold  facts  without  aids  to  the 
understanding  of  them. 

One  reason  is  the  value  of  machine  knitting  to  the  human 
race.  The  frame  tender  in  an  obscure  httle  mill  who  longs  for 
bigger  and  better  things  seldom  realizes  that  he  is  doing  as 
much  knitting  as  fourteen  thousand  grandmothers  with  their 
hand  needles,  and  just  as  the  product  of  that  hand  knitting 
benefited  his  immediate  family,  so  his  work,  thousands  of 
times  more,  benefits  members  of  his  bigger  human  family  so 
numerous  and  so  far  away  that  he  can  never  know  them. 

Another  reason  is  the  opportunity  to  benefit  the  knitter  as  a 
class.  Who  is  there  with  any  experience  in  the  industry  who 
has  not  known  of  a  knitter's  leaving  his  home  town  for  a  better 
opening,  and  then  drifting  back  with  the  remark,  "  Yes,  the 
wages  were  better,  but  the  machines  ran  the  other  way  and  the 
yarn  count  was  different,  and  I  couldn't  catch  onto  it."  What 
a  commentary!  A  knitter  at  home  and  not  abroad!  Suppose 
the  mechanic  said,  I  am  a  machinist  in  Saratoga  County 
but  not  elsewhere."  What  kind  of  a  machinist  would  he  be? 
For  what  reason  is  a  knitter's  knowledge  limited  to  one  locality, 
when  the  machinist's,  the  carpenter's,  the  mason's  is  universal. 


4 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


For  no  reason.  It  is  unreasonable.  For  what  cause,  then? 
Because  the  fundamentals  have  not  been  offered  to  him. 

Intimate  acquaintance  with  the  knitter  and  his  suiToundings 
shows  the  need  of  these  appeals  for  improvement  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  such  appeals  are  unconventional  and  sure  to  be 
misunderstood  by  some  who  regard  an  offer  of  better  educa- 
tional facilities  as  an  imputation  of  ignorance.  The  error  of 
such  a  position  should  be  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  enUght- 
enment  of  the  entire  knitting  world  is  ignorance  compared  to 
that  of  almost  every  other  branch  of  human  endeavor. 

It  is  what  we  retain  which  benefits  us,  not  what  we  hear. 
A  man  might  hear  good  sermons  every'  Sunday  of  his  life  and 
good  advice  every  week  day,  but  if  he  retain  nothing  of  either, 
he  will  not  benefit  thereby.  Technical  knowledge  is  not  retain- 
able by  the  mere  reading  of  it.  The  reader  must  take  pencil 
and  paper  and  put  down  in  black  and  white  the  main  truths 
if  he  is  to  be  benefited  by  them.  And  while  he  is  about  it  he 
might  use  a  pen  and  indexed  notebook  and  put  those  truths 
down  where  they  will  be  readilj-  available.  Xystrom,  in  the 
preface  to  his  handbook,  put  these  words:  "  Every  engineer 
should  make  his  own  pocket  book,  as  he  proceeds  in  study  and 
practice,  to  suit  his  particular  business."  Xystrom's  handbook 
has  been  superseded.  \Miy?  Largely  because  others  made 
more  complete  handbooks  from  Xystrom's  suggestion.  And  it 
is  probable  that  this  one  sentence  in  Xystrom's  book  will  be  of 
more  value  to  the  world  and  five  longer  than  all  the  rest  of 
Xystrom's  book  put  together,  for  the  sentence  will  never  become 
obsolete  whereas  the  rest  of  the  book  will.  Consequently,  the 
knitter  who  does  not  begin  the  reading  of  this  handbook  by 
starting  one  of  his  own  will  miss  not  only  the  spirit  and  benefit 
of  this  book  but  he  and  the  world  will  miss  the  benefit  of  his 
own  book. 

What  connects  knitters  all  over  the  world?  Knit  fabric.  It 
may  have  been  made  by  a  Yankee,  or  a  Frenchman,  on  a  latch 
needle,  or  on  a  spring  needle,  on  a  round  machine,  or  on  a 
straight  machine,  —  possibly  an  expert  might  tell  some  of  the 
latter  details,  but  every  knitter  recognizes  the  knit  stitch  itself, 
and  every  true  knitter  is  attracted  by  it.  Therefore,  the  way 
for  broadening  the  knitter's  horizon  is  through  the  fabric.  But 
the  fabric  is  made  from  yarn,  so  the  beginning  is  there.  This 
book  does  not  treat  of  the  composition  of  yam,  since  such  in- 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Reading 


5 


formation  may  be  found  in  numerous  books  and  since  one  idea 
of  this  book  is  not  to  repeat  except  where  improvement  seems 
evident.  Yarn  composition  is  important  and  should  be  studied 
elsewhere,  but  yarn  diameter  is  mechanically  the  most  impor- 
tant and  is  treated  here  in  a  readily  understandable  way  under 

Yarn  Diameter 

The  student  should  read  this  topic  carefully  and  then  apply 
the  principles  by  determining  the  diameter  of  some  yarn.  If 
no  hosiery  yarn  is  at  hand,  a  few  pieces  of  soft  cord,  such  as  is 
used  for  tying  bundles,  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Elements  of  Knitting 

The  first  part  of  this  is  plain  sailing,  but  it  is  important 
since  it  defines  the  terms  commonly  used  in  knitting.  The 
student  should  learn  the  application  of  the  terms,  such  as  needle 
wale,  sinker  wale,  course,  etc.,  and  should  form  the  habit  of 
using  them.  Otherwise  the  descriptions  which  follow  will  not 
be  readily  understood. 

The  first  mathematical  portion  of  the  elements  is  the  deriva- 
tion of  the  general  rule 

Cut2 


Yarn  number 


Constant 


This  is  one  of  the  most  important  relations  in  knitting,  so  of 
course  it  is  desirable  that  the  student  be  able  to  derive  it  from 
the  definitions  of  cut  and  number,  since  then  he  will  not  only 
understand  it  better,  but  will  be  able  to  conjure  it  up  when  he 
needs  it.  However,  inability  to  derive  the  rule  does  not  de- 
tract from  its  usefulness  any  more  than  does  inability  to  derive 
the  rule  for  the  horse  power  of  a  steam  engine.  Consequently, 
the  derivation  may  be  skipped  by  those  who  find  it  laborious, 
but  the  result  should  be  thoroughly  memorized. 

The  latter  part  of  the  elements,  that  which  contains  the  ex- 
planation of  the  underlying  principles  of  knitting  for  (1)  stitches 
constant,  (2)  yarn  constant  and  (3)  loops  proportional  to  the 
diameter  of  the  yarn,  is  very  important.  It  is  the  theory  of 
knitting  put  in  language  meant  to  be  plain.  It  should  be  read 
with  a  pad  and  pencil  at  hand  for  working  out  the  simple  illus- 
trations in  order  to  fix  the  principles;  and  should  not  be  left 
until  it  is  mastered  since  practically  all  that  follows  is  dependent 
on  it. 


6 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Practical  Variations  from  Knitting  Rules 

This  is  easy  reading  but  highly  important  for  several  reasons. 
In  the  first  place,  mere  book  learning  is  even  more  deficient 
than  mere  practical  learning.  So  the  student  of  books  is  justly 
under  the  suspicion  of  impracticability  until  he  has  proven 
otherwise;  and  the  best  way  in  which  he  can  prove  otherwise 
is  to  admit  freely  his  limitations.  Therefore,  the  student 
should  learn  as  early  as  possible  how  much  allowance  to  make 
between  theory  and  practice.  He  should  put  every  principle  to 
the  severest  test  and  should  not  depend  on  memory  for  the 
results  of  the  tests  but  should  put  down  on  paper  the  discrep- 
ancies between  the  rules  and  the  actual  results,  and  should 
then  derive  the  average  maximum  and  minimum  errors.  These 
results  should  be  kept  with  each  formula,  for  no  formula  is  com- 
plete without  knowledge  of  its  reliabiUtj'.  The  formulas  for 
regular  fabrics  are  so  new  that  only  a  little  such  knowledge  is 
available  for  them,  therefore  the  user  must  find  the  rest  for 
himself. 

Relation  of  Machine  Gauge  and  Cut 
This  should  be  learned. 

Yarn-gauge  Rules  and  Charts  for  Latch-needle  Rib  and 
Spring-needle  Loop-wheel  Machines 

These  rules  connect  the  fabric  with  the  machine  which  makes 
it  and,  therefore,  are  highly  important,  but  the  allowable  varia- 
tion from  them  is  also  important,  so  the  charts  showing  the 
variations  should  be  studied  imtil  the  information  in  the  charts 
can  be  properly  applied. 

Formulas  for  Regular  Rib  Fabrics  and  Explanations:  Formulas 
for  Regular  Flat  Fabrics  and  Explanations 

These  are  the  means  of  practical  application  of  the  theory  of 
knit  fabrics  —  rather  the  principles  of  knit  fabrics  —  so  the 
student  should  study  them  by  working  out  examples  with  the 
formulas  which  are  designated  the  most  important  in  the  ex- 
planations. Of  course  the  Tabulations  for  Regular  Fabrics 
belong  with  the  formulas  and  should  have  the  attention  which 
they  deserve.  The  student  should  understand  thoroughly  that 
although  the  principles  of  the  formulas  are  on  a  substantial 
basis  the  constants  used  are  a  matter  of  choice.    For  instance, 


Suggestions  for  a  Coui-se  of  Reading 


7 


in  his  locality  fabric  which  has  courses  to  wales  as  12  to  10  may 
be  considered  to  represent  best  average  practice.  In  such 
case  the  ambitious  student  may  test  his  ability  by  working  out 
a  set  of  formulas  for  those  conditions. 

The  Relation  of  the  Diameter  of  the  Yarn  to  the  Needle  Spacing 

This  is  somewhat  mathematical,  but  if  found  difficult  the 
mathematics  may  be  skipped.  However,  the  results  should  be 
understood  and  considered.  As  a  general  rule,  the  machine 
which  works  the  heaviest  yarn  in  proportion  to  the  needle 
spacing  is  technically  the  best  machine.  This  indicates  that  it 
is  desirable  to  find  means  of  using  heavy  yarn,  especially  on 
those  machines  which  are  now  restricted  to  comparatively 
light  yarn.  Of  course,  the  practical  problem  involves  retaining 
good  needle  velocity  and  a  reasonable  number  of  feeds,  but  any 
discovery  which  will  throw  light  on  the  subject  is  valuable. 

Width  of  Fabric  from  Different  Machines 

This  subject  is  much  like  the  last.  It  may  seem  dry  but  it 
is  useful. 

Range  of  Fabric  from  the  Same  Gauge  or  Cut 

This  is  an  illustration  of  how  much  difference  there  may  be 
in  fabrics  from  the  same  number  of  needles  per  inch.  Yet  it  has 
been  customary  to  try  to  determine  the  cut  from  the  fabric.  It 
should  be  evident  that  the  fabric  rules  given  in  this  book  pro- 
vide a  more  rational  and  accurate  method  for  determining  the 
needles  per  inch. 

Production  of  Circular  Knitting  Machines 

This  gives  the  general  considerations  of  the  production 
question  and  deserves  to  be  read  thoroughly. 

Production  —  Methods  of  Calculating 

The  student  should  take  his  pencil  and  paper  and  work 
through  each  method  as  it  is  given,  then  he  should  work  each 
one  through  with  the  book  closed,  and  finally  he  should  work 
each  one  through  with  an  entirely  new  set  of  conditions.  Even 
then  he  will  be  fortunate  if  he  remembers  the  methods  suffi- 
ciently for  application  on  the  spot,  since  these  methods  are  as 
easy  to  forget  as  they  are  important.    A  boiler  maker  who  could 


8 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


not  calculate  the  capacity  of  his  boilers,  or  an  engine  maker  who 
could  not  calculate  the  capacity  of  his  engines,  would  be  re- 
garded as  an  ignoramus;  yet  the  knitter,  as  a  rule,  cannot  cal- 
culate the  capacity  of  his  machines,  although  this  is  one  of  the 
simple  problems  in  knitting.  Therefore,  the  student  of  knitting 
should  learn  the  subject,  not  only  because  he  may  require  it,  but 
because  it  helps  to  put  his  calling  on  the  higher  plane  where  it 
should  be. 

Relative  Production  of  Different  Types  of  Knitting  Machines 

This  is  a  highly  important  question  and  one  which  tests  the 
reader's  knowledge  of  what  he  has  already  read.  It  frequently 
happens  that  a  cotton  yarn  company  desires  to  install  machinery 
to  convert  the  yarn  into  fabric.  ^\Tiat  machines  should  be  in- 
stalled to  convert  the  most  pounds  or  to  produce  the  most 
yards?  The  knitter  should  be  able  to  answer  questions  like 
these.    If  he  studies  this  topic,  he  will  be  able  to  do  so. 

Weight  per  Square  Yard  Formula  —  Derivation 

This  formula  is  to  knitting  what  the  first  law  of  gravitation 
is  to  the  heavenly  bodies.  Astronomers  used  to  be  puzzled  by 
the  difference  in  motion  between  a  planet  and  a  comet,  and  by 
lesser  differences  in  the  motions  of  any  two  planets.  But  the 
first  law  of  gravitation,  namely,  that  bodies  attract  each  other 
directly  as  their  masses  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  their 
distance,  solved  the  whole  problem;  so  that  a  law  expressible 
in  sixteen  words  bound  the  immeasurable  universe  together. 
Similarly  the  weight  per  yard  formula  binds  all  knit  fabric 
together,  for  it  states  the  conditions  which  control  every  piece 
of  knit  fabric.  This  derivation  is  simple  arithmetic  and  it  is 
so  important  that  every  knitter  should  learn  it  and  be  able  to 
derive  it  at  any  time. 

Determining  the  Weight  per  Square  Yard  by  Weighing 

Although  this  topic  is  intended  for  the  manufacturer  or  analyst ' 
who  will  do  enough  weighing  to  warrant  the  cost  of  a  die  for 
cutting  the  fabric,  it  is  useful  to  the  student  as  well.  If  a  die  is 
not  readily  procurable,  the  student  may  cut  out  rectangular 
pieces  of  cloth,  using  for  a  pattern  a  piece  of  cardboard,  say  four 
inches  square. 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Reading 


9 


Two-thread  Knitting 
Twist  in  Flat  Knit  Fabric  Made  with  Self-feeding  Needles 
Twist  in  Rib  Fabric 
Summary  Regarding  Twist  of  Knit  Fabrics 

These  are  easy  reading,  but  they  should  not  be  slighted  be- 
cause they  are  easy.  The  student  will  find  in  them  many 
principles  which  have  much  broader  application  than  the  titles 
indicate,  and  he  should  endeavor  to  understand  those  principles 
in  order  to  extend  their  apphcation  himself.  For  instance,  the 
subject  of  twist  in  knit  fabrics  and  knitting  yarn  is  as  broad  as 
its  investigation  has  been  narrow,  so  it  offers  a  good  field  for 
study. 

Yarn  Counts  —  General 

The  knitter  works  with  yarn,  so  he  is  not  thoroughly  equipped 
for  his  occupation  until  he  understands  the  methods  of  number- 
ing yarn.  It  is  a  sad  reflection  on  our  civilization  that  so  much 
time  has  to  be  wasted  in  learning  many  different  counts  when 
a  few  would  answer  the  purpose;  but  if  the  time  consumed  spurs 
the  student  to  use  his  influence  toward  the  adoption  of  two  or 
three  universal  yarn  counts,  it  will  not  be  entirely  lost. 

Yarn-count  Definitions 

These  should  be  memorized.  Undoubtedly,  some  of  the 
definitions  will  be  forgotten  in  time,  but  if  the  student  memo- 
rizes them  when  the  subject  is  in  hand,  he  is  likely  to  retain  a 
sufficiently  clear  idea  of  them  to  be  of  service  in  time  of  need. 

Counts  Used  for  Different  Elinds  of  Yarns 

This  old  subject  is  treated  briefly  for  the  American  knitter, 
since  the  usual  treatise  is  either  too  voluminous  or  does  not  in- 
clude the  local  counts.  The  pitfalls  of  yarn  numbering  should 
be  carefully  learned,  for  it  is  frequently  costly  to  specify  the 
wrong  number  of  yarn.  Moreover,  it  is  advisable  to  know 
something  about  the  local  yarn  numbering  when  one  goes  to  a 
new  locality,  since  the  knowledge  dispels  the  to-be-expected  sus- 
picion of  provincialism. 


10 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Single  Equivalent  of  Two  or  More  Yarns  —  Formula 
The  equation  for  two  yarns  should  be  thoroughly  learned, 
even  if  the  demonstration  is  too  difficult.  Moreover,  the  equa- 
tion should  be  practiced  until  proficiency  in  its  use  is  attained. 
When  the  knitter  is  asked  what  the  equivalent  of  a  ten  and 
six  yarn  is  and  has  to  admit  that  he  does  not  know  and  can- 
not find  out  without  a  table,  his  admission  is  a  sad  commen- 
tar}'  on  his  knowledge. 

Explanation  of  Yarn-transformation  Table  —  Yarn-transformation 

Table 

These  should  be  mastered.  Some  may  say  that  they  have 
a  parallel  column  transformation  table  with  which  they  ai*e 
familiar.  That  is  all  right  for  whoever  does  not  use  yarn  every 
day,  but  the  knitter  should  be  able  to  transform  between  the 
counts  which  he  uses  without  the  aid  of  a  table.  He  may  be 
looking  for  a  position  some  day,  and  the  prospective  employer 
msLy  ask  him  a  simple  transformation  question,  just  as  a  sea- 
man is  asked  to  box  the  compass  as  a  slight  evidence  of  his 
knowledge.  If  he  says  that  he  does  not  know  but  must  go  home 
and  look  in  a  book  to  find  out,  he  is  likely  to  be  advised  to 
go  home  and  stay  there.  Very  many  of  the  usual  yarn  trans- 
formations are  solvable  almost  or  entirely  mentally,  and  it 
gives  standing  to  a  knitter  to  be  able  to  answer  such  questions 
on  the  spot.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  all  of  the  constants 
will  be  learned,  but  if  a  knitter  uses  cotton,  worsted  and  mill- 
spun  yarn,  he  should  be  able  without  looking  at  a  book  or  a 
memorandum  to  make  any  transformation  between  the  cotton 
count,  worsted  count,  and  whatever  local  count  is  used. 

Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 
Although  this  is  generally  regarded  as  belonging  more  to  loop- 
wheel  knitting  than  to  general  knitting,  still  the  principles  are 
broad  even  if  the  application  is  somewhat  restricted.  More- 
over, the  mental  training  obtained  by  mastering  such  problems 
is  highly  beneficial.  The  man  who  is  content  to  have  all  of  his 
information  brought  to  him  ready  for  use  will  become  depend- 
ent just  like  the  man  who  requires  all  of  his  food  brought  to 
him.  But  those  who  exercise  either  their  minds  or  their  muscles 
—  and  preferably  both  —  for  what  they  get  are  independent, 
as  all  rational  beings  should  be. 


Suggestions  for  a  Course  of  Reading 


11 


Minimum  Weight  per  Square  Yard 
This  is  an  illustration  of  the  purely  theoretical.  Fabric  of 
the  kind  discussed  is  never  seen.  Naturally,  some  think  that 
time  spent  in  discussing  it  is  lost.  But  such  people  would  be 
surprised  if  they  would  learn  how  much  our  present  knowledge 
of  common  affairs  has  been  increased  by  discussing  the  in- 
finitely great  and  the  infinitely  small.  Yet  neither  will  ever  be 
reached  here.  However,  from  those  unattainable  boundaries  it 
is  possible  to  work  back  and  derive  much  practical  information. 
It  is  so  with  the  minimum  weight  per  square  yard;  it  sets  a 
limit  which  assists  in  determining  the  attainable  weights.  But 
better  still  it  shows  how  reasoning  can  be  applied  to  knitting 
for  its  advancement  as  well  as  to  anything  else.  Moreover,  the 
knitter  should  not  leave  such  reasoning  for  the  so-called  theo- 
rists. The  knitter  has  the  same  kind  of  a  brain  as  the  theorist 
and  frequently  a  better  opportunity  to  use  it,  and  he  should 
exercise  the  opportunity. 

Vertical  Patterns 
This  topic  is  something  like  Figure  Designing  in  that  it  is 
certainly  beneficial  as  a  study,  even  if  the  opportunity  does  not 
occur  for  its  application. 

Economics  of  Knitting 

Economical  knitting  is  what  every  knitter  is  striving  for, 
since,  if  he  does  not  get  pretty  near  to  it,  competition  will  drive 
him  out  of  business.  Therefore,  it  ought  to  be  of  interest  and 
value  to  know  definitely  just  what  roads  lead  to  economy  in- 
stead of  groping  around  in  the  dark  for  them.  Economics  of 
Knitting  points  out  those  roads.  The  subject  may  seem  dry. 
So  are  the  economics  of  almost  every  industry.  But  by  such 
dry  subjects  is  progress  made. 

Theory  of  Knit  Fabrics 

This  is  not  intended  for  practical  knitters  since  they  have 
already  learned  it  from  the  Elements  of  Knitting.  It  is  for 
those  who  want  to  get  quickly  at  the  reason  for  the  knitting 
system  which  this  book  proclaims.  It  is  a  line  of  departure 
for  those  who  feel  prompted  to  express  agreement  or  disagree- 
ment. The  author  hopes  that  all  such  will  carry  out  their 
promptings  with  as  much  fidelity  as  has  been  exercised  in  devel- 


12 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


oping  the  system  itself,  since  only  by  such  criticism  can  the  truth 
be  reached.  The  object  of  this  book  is  to  show  the  truth,  and 
those  who  support  its  truths  or  correct  its  errors  will  be  fur- 
thering that  object. 

The  Remainder  of  the  Book 

This  needs  no  introduction  other  than  the  index  and  table  of 
contents.  The  knitter  should  remember,  however,  that  although 
the  tables  are  for  him  as  well  as  for  those  who  are  not  knitters, 
still  he  should  not  be  dependent  on  the  tables,  since  if  he  has 
followed  these  suggestions  he  already  knows  formulas  enough 
to  enable  him  to  derive  hundreds  of  tables.  These  tables  are 
merely  some  of  those  rules  worked  out  for  cases  which  might 
arise,  in  order  to  save  the  time  of  working  them  out  when  the 
cases  do  arise.  So  the  rule  is  the  main  thing.  Moreover,  the 
knitter  can  carry  the  rule  in  his  head,'but  not  the  table.  There- 
fore, he  should  keep  the  rules  in  his  head  and  be  able  to  apply 
them  whenever  it  is  necessary. 

YARN  DIAMETER 

It  is  the  custom  to  use  the  yarn  number  in  knitting  cal- 
culations, which  is  right  as  far  as  it  goes,  since  the  number  ex- 
presses the  inverted  weight  per  unit  length  of  the  yarn  and  is, 
therefore,  useful,  very  much  as  the  weight  per  foot  of  shafting  is 
useful.  But  if  a  machinist  were  required  to  construct  something 
with  shafting  and  had  to  work  ^by  the  weight  per  foot  instead  of 
the  diameter,  he  would  be  sadly  inconvenienced.  Yet  this  is 
the  condition  under  which  the  knitter  has  worked  —  a  condition 
which  is  responsible  for  much  confusion  and  waste.  The  knitting 
machine  is  insensible  to  the  weight  of  yarn,  but  it  is  very  sen- 
sitive to  imdersized  or  over-sized  yarn.  Of  course,  the  weight 
has  a  relation  to  the  diameter,  but  this  relation  is  so  affected  by 
the  composition,  twist,  and  hygroscopicity  of  the  yarn  that  it 
is  not  reliable  for  determining  the  diameter  except  when  these 
and  other  disturbing  conditions  are  alike. 

Although  the  number  of  the  yarn  is  useful  and  therefore  de- 
sirable for  knitting  purposes,  the  diameter  or  an  equivalent  is 
much  more  desirable,  since  the  width  of  the  fabric,  the  cut  of 
the  machine,  the  length  of  the  stitch,  and  other  important 
features  are  dependent  on  it. 


Yarn  Diameter 


13 


It  is  generally  considered  that  the  actual  or  sensible  diameter 
—  the  diameter  which  the  machine  experiences  —  is  almost  im- 
possible to  determine.  In  weaving,  calculations  are  made  with 
diameters  derived  from  the  specific  weight  of  the  material,  cotton, 
wool,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  these  diameters  are  less 
than  the  sensible  diameter.  Moreover  knitting  —  especially  in 
America  —  has  not  yet  reached  the  calculating  stage,  so  what- 
ever diameters  are  used  must  not  only  be  such  as  the  machine 
experiences  but  must  be  convenient  of  access  and  simple  to 
handle. 


Method  for  the  determination  of  the  coils  per  half-inch  of  the  yarn,  from 
which  the  diameter  of  the  yarn,  the  diameters  per  inch,  and  the  yarn  number 
may  be  calculated. 


A  means  of  meeting  all  these  requirements  is  illustrated 
herewith.  Almost  every  one  has  a  watch-chain  bar.  Make  a 
very  slight  nick  in  the  bar  half  an  inch  from  the  nearest  side  of 
the  band.  Wind  the  yarn  in  question  around  the  bar  out  to 
the  mark,  say  five  slightly  separated  coils  at  a  time,  pressing 
each  five  coils  toward  the  band,  so  that  they  come  firmly  to- 
gether, but  are  not  compressed  too  tightly.  Then  one-half 
divided  hy  the  number  of  coils  gives  the  diameter  of  the  yarn.  But 
it  is  not  necessary  to  make  the  division  since  the  number  of 


14 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


coils  is  as  reliable  to  work  with  as  the  diameter  and  is  much 
more  convenient.  By  this  means,  from  what  follows  and  with 
only  a  piece  of  yarn,  say  eight  inches  in  length,  the  knitter  may 
determine  the  cut  to  use,  the  stitches  per  foot,  the  number  of 
the  yarn  and  other  useful  information.  Moreover,  skill  in  coil- 
ing the  yarn  may  be  acquired  with  less  practice  than  is  required 
for  the  use  of  a  reel  and  balance.  The  novice  should  not  be 
discouraged  if  the  yarn  number  obtained  by  this  method  does 
not  exactly  agree  with  the  number  obtained  by  reeling,  for  it 
has  already  been  sho^vn  that  the  diameter  does  not  always  cor- 
respond with  the  number,  so  it  must  follow  that  the  number 
does  not  always  correspond  with  the  diameter.  Consequently 
failure  to  get  the  correct  number  by  counting  the  coils  is  not 
necessarily  proof  that  either  the  method  or  the  application  of 
it  is  faulty. 

Of  course  there  are  with  this  method,  as  with  every  other, 
sources  of  error,  opportunities  for  carelessness,  etc.  such  as 
chancing  on  an  exceptionally  light  or  heavy  piece  of  the  yarn, 
or  pressing  the  coils  differently,  or  using  a  rough  or  sticky  bar; 
but  with  ordinary  caution  this  method  affords  the  knitter  an 
exceedingly  simple  guide  which  is  far  ahead  of  what  has  for- 
merly been  available. 

In  the  following  discussion  the  yarn  diameter  and  the  coils 
are  obtained  with  a  bar.  The  coils  per  one-half  inch  are  gen- 
erally used  since  the  coils  per  inch  are  too  many  to  count  readily 
and  no  advantage  is  gained  by  using  them,  except  for  more 
elaborate  calculations  than  the  knitter  is  likely  to  make.  Ob- 
viously the  number  of  coils  per  half  inch  is  half  the  number  of 
coils  per  inch.  So  in  order  to  prevent  confusion,  the  coils  per 
half  inch  are  so  -stated,  or  as  "  one-half  coils  per  inch,"  whereas 

coils  "  means  coils  per  inch. 

ELEMENTS  OF  KNITTING 

Definition  of  Knitting.  —  Knitting  is  making  fabric  on  more 
than  one  needle  by  interlooping  a  thread  or  several  parallel 
threads. 

The  Loop  is  the  Element.  —  Since  the  fabric  is  made  up  of  a 
succession  of  loops,  the  element  of  the  fabric  is  the  loop. 

Course.  —  Successive  loops  in  any  one  thread  form  a  course, 
except  in  warp  knitting  where  the  loops  formed  at  one  time  form 
a  course. 


Elements  of  Knitting 


15 


Length  of  Course.  —  In  circular  knitting  a  course  follows  a 
continuous  helical  path  in  the  tube  of  fabric  from  beginning  to 
end,  so  its  length  is  inconveniently  great;  consequently  the 
length  is  taken  as  one  complete  circuit  of  the  fabric,  and  suc- 
cessive circuits  are  regarded  as  separate  courses. 

First  Course.  —  The  first  course  may  be  formed  m  any  one  of 
many  ways,  such  as  wrapping  the  yarn  once  around  each  needle 
in  succession,  or  may  be  in  a  fabric  previously  knit. 

Formation  of  Loop.  —  In  the  latter  case  a  needle  is  inserted 
through  each  one  of  the  original  loops  and  yarn  is  thereby  drawn 
through  the  original  loops  to  form  the  next  course  which  is 
held  on  the  needles  until  the  operation  is  repeated,  and  so  on. 

Needle  Loop.  —  The  yarn  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  fabric  in 
what  is  called  a  snake  curve,  and  the  loops  which  are  drawn 
through  the  previously  formed  loops  are  called  the  needle  loops 
because  they  rest  on  the  needle. 

Sinker  Loop.  —  But  since  the  yarn  is  continuous  there  must 
be  corresponding  connecting  loops  of  opposite  curvature;  these 
are  called  sinker  loops,  because  in  the  original  knitting  machine 
during  the  feeding  of  the  yarn  they  rested  against  thin  plates 
called  sinkers. 

Wale.  —  A  row  of  adjoining  loops  in  different  courses  is  called 
a  wale  or  rib. 

Stitch.  —  A  stitch  is  really  the  combination  of  loops  from 
adjoining  threads  forming  a  fixed  part  of  the  fabric,  and  the 
duplication  of  which  forms  the  whole  fabric. 

But  a  stitch  is  frequently  considered  to  be  the  length  of  yarn 
from  any  point  to  an  adjoining  corresponding  point,  e.g.  from 
the  middle  of  a  sinker  loop  to  the  middle  of  the  next  sinker  loop. 

Top  and  Bottom  of  Loop  and  Fabric.  —  The  needle  loop  is 
considered  to  be  the  top  of  the  stitch  and  the  sinker  loop  the 
bottom. 

Correspondingly  the  bottom  of  the  fabric  is  that  which  is 
knit  first  and  the  top  is  that  which  is  knit  last. 

Length  and  Width  of  Fabric.  —  The  extent  of  the  fabric 
along  the  courses  is  limited  by  the  number  of  needles,  but  along 
the  wales  it  is  unlimited  except  by  the  supply  of  yarn,  so  the 
length  of  the  fabric  is  taken  as  the  length  of  a  wale,  and  the 
width,  as  the  length  of  a  course,  except  in  tubular  fabrics  in 
which  half  the  length  of  a  single  course  is  taken  —  that  is,  the 
flattened  width  of  the  tube. 


16 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Suppositions.  —  For  the  discussion  of  the  elementary  prin- 
ciples of  knitting,  the  yarn  is  considered  round  and  flexible  to 
bending  but  not  to  compression.  The  machine  is  considered  to 
be  ideal,  i.e.  perfect  in  its  operation  and  without  limitations  as 


I       Width  I 
p~  of  Wale  ^ 
4  diameters 

Illustration  1. 

Face  of  plain  flat  fabric.    A,  A,  needle  loops,  B,  B,  sinker  loops. 

to  length  of  stitch,  size  of  needle,  etc.  The  practical  qualifica- 
tions are  given  subsequently. 

Illustrations  of  Knit  Stitch.  —  Illustration  1  shows  a  face 
view  and  Illustration  2  shows  a  back  view  of  three  wales, 
marked  1,  2,  3,  of  plain  fiat  (not  ribbed)  knitting. 


Elements  of  Knitting 


17 


Width  of  Wale  and  of  Fabric.  —  A  wale  at  its  widest  part  is 
made  up  of  a  loop  bent  over  two  threads  side  by  side,  and  since 
these  are  all  the  same  thread,  the  diameters  are  all  the  same,  so 
the  width  oj  the  wale  is  four  diameters. 


Illustration  2. 
Back  of  plain  flat  fabric. 


But  the  wales  touch  at  their  widest  portion  so 
The  entire  width  of  the 

fabric  =  width    of    wale  X  number 

of  wales 
=  4  dia.  of  yarn  X  number  of 
wales 

=  4  dia.  of  yarn  X  number  of 
needles. 


18 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


The  half  width  or  flattened 

width  of  the  tube  =  2  dia.  of  yarn  X  number  of 

needles 

=  2  dia.  of  yarn  X  dia.  of 
machine  X  3.14  X  cut 

=  6.28  dia.  of  yarn  X  dia.  of 
machine  X  cut. 

From  this  it  follows  that  the  width  of  the  fabric  is  dependent 
not  only  on  the  diameter  of  the  machine  but  on  the  cut  and  on 
the  diameter  of  the  yarn.  This  is  actually  demonstrated  in 
regard  to  the  cut  by  some  small  mills  which  have  only  a  few 
diameters  of  machines,  but  make  a  wide  range  of  garment 
sizes  by  using  cylinders  and  dials  of  different  cuts  in  the  same 
machine.  It  is  evident  also  that  if  yarn  of  smaller  diameter  is 
used,  the  width  of  the  fabric  will  be  proportionally  less.  This 
may  be  counteracted  by  increasing  the  diameter  of  the  machine 
with  the  same  cut,  as  is  well  known,  or  by  using  a  cylinder  and 
a  dial  of  correspondingly  finer  cut. 

Since  dia.  of  yarn  =   ^—r-. — r-,  I 

Coils  per  §  men  I 

Width  of  flattened  tube  of  fabric  =   r-^ — r-  1 

Coils  per  I  inch 

i.e.  The  flattened  width  of  the  tube  of  plain  fabric  from  a  circular 
machine  equals  the  number  of  needles  divided  by  the  number  of  coils 
of  yarn  per  half  inch. 

.  _  3.14  X  dia.  of  machine  X  cut  ^ 
Coils  per  ^  inch 

i.e.  The  flattened  width  of  the  tube  of  plain  fabric  from  a  circular 
machine  equals  3.14  multiplied  by  the  diameter  of  the  needle  line 
multiplied  by  the  cut  and  divided  by  the  coils  of  yarn  per  half  inch. 

Width  of  Course.  —  A  visible  course  is  narrower  than  the 
height  of  a  stitch,  since  the  loops  overlap  by  approximately  a 
diameter  both  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom. 

Moreover,  the  width  of  the  course  is  determined  by  the  length 
of  yarn  in  the  stitch  as  well  as  by  the  diameter,  instead  of  by 
the  diameter  alone  as  is  the  case  with  the  wale. 

Courses  and  Wales  per  Inch.  —  Courses  are  generally  com- 
pared by  the  number  per  inch,  as  are  also  the  wales,  but  since 
the  width  of  the  fabric  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  wales, 
the  width  is  generally  used  instead  of  the  wales  per  inch. 


♦ 

Elements  of  Knitting 


19 


Stitches  per  Foot.  —  The  length  of  yarn  in  the  stitch  is  ex- 
)ressed  by  the  number  of  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn,  since  this  is 
L  convenient  unit.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the 
ength  of  the  yarn  in  the  stitch  increases  as  the  stitches  per  foot 
lecrease  —  just  as  the  wales  per  inch  decrease  when  the  width 
)f  the  wale  increases.  These  are  what  are  called  inverse  re- 
ations  —  that  is,  one  goes  up  when  the  other  goes  down.  There 
.re  many  such  in  knitting,  and  they  must  be  kept  in  mind  in 
•rder  to  comprehend  the  subject. 

Face  and  Back.  —  Each  of  the  loops  of  the  plain  fabric  is 
i.rawn  through  another  one  toward  what  is  considered  the  face 


Illustration  3. 
Rib  fabric  with  wales  spread  apart. 

the  fabric.  This  throws  the  tops  and  the  bottoms  of  the  loops 
the  back,  as  Illustration  2  shows,  and  makes  the  appear- 

ce  of  the  back  different  from  that  of  the  front,  or  face. 

Rib  Fabric.  —  Now  consider  the  loops  of  every  other  wale  to 
drawn  through  to  the  back  instead  of  the  front.    Then  lUus- 


20 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


tration  1  will  appear  like  Illustration  3,  except  that  wales  1  and 
3,  coming  together,  will  leave  wale  2  entirely  on  the  back. 
The  face  of  the  cloth  will  appear  just  the  same  as  before,  and  the 
back  will  appear  just  like  the  face,  since  the  tops  and  bottoms 
of  the  loops  will  be  hidden  between  the  front  and  back  wales. 

Curling  of  Edges  of  Flat  Fabric.  —  The  objectionable  curling 
of  the  edges  of  flat  fabric  is  due  to  the  accumulated  straighten- 
ing out  of  the  yarn  in  the  stitches,  which  tendency  is  all  in  one 
direction  in  any  one  place  —  toward  the  face  at  the  ends  and 
toward  the  back  at  the  sides  —  since  the  loops  are  all  formed 
alike.  But  in  rib  fabric,  where  every  alternate  stitch  in  a 
course  is  drawn  in  the  reverse  direction,  the  tendency  to 
straighten  does  not  accumulate  but  counterbalances,  therefore 
the  fabric  does  not  curl  at  the  edges. 

Raveling  Flat  and  Rib  Fabric.  —  It  will  also  be  noticed  that 
the  flat  fabric  may  be  raveled  from  either  end,  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  tell  the  top  from  the  bottom  when  it  is  not  on  the 
machine;  whereas  the  rib  fabric  cannot  be  raveled  at  the  end 
which  came  off  the  needles  first  —  the  lower  end.  Illustration 
3  —  because  the  end  thread  is  wound  around  the  next  thread 
instead  of  being  merely  looped  through  it. 

Comparative  Width  of  Flat  and  Rib  Fabric.  —  If  the  same 
number  of  needles  is  used,  the  rib  fabric  will  be  half  as  wide  as 
the  plain  fabric,  since  half  of  the  wales  lie  on  the  back.  The 
courses  will  not  be  changed. 

Elasticity  of  Flat  and  Rib  Fabric.  —  It  is  evident  from  the 
preceding  that  rib  knitting  is  substantially  flat  knitting  with 
every  other  wale  facing  inward,  and  since  the  wales  on  the  in- 
side overlap  those  on  the  outside,  rib  fabric  is  only  half  as  wide 
as  fiat  fabric  made  of  the  same  yarn  and  with  the  same  total  number 
of  needles.  In  other  words,  rib  fabric  of  the  same  width  as  flat 
fabric  made  of  the  same  yarn  has  twice  as  many  wales  to  stretch; 
consequently  it  has  twice  the  elasticity  from  this  fact  alone. 
Moreover,  when  rib  fabric  is  stretched,  the  front  and  back 
wales  tend  to  get  into  line  between  each  other,  and  so  supply 
still  more  elasticity  than  has  just  been  mentioned. 

Double  Sets  of  Needles.  —  In  rib  machinery  the  needles  are 
divided  into  two  sets;  one  for  knitting  the  face  and  the  other 
for  knitting  the  back.  These  sets  are  distinguished  by  various 
names,  but  in  circular  latch-needle  machinery  the  needles  which 
knit  the  back  are  generally  called  dial  needles,  and  those  which 


Elements  of  Knitting 


21 


knit  the  face  are  generally  called  cylinder  needles.  Since  for 
plain  rib  fabric  the  same  number  of  needles  is  used  in  each  set, 
and  since  the  cylinder  needles  generally  knit  the  face  of  the 
cloth,  the  number  of  cylinder  needles  is  used  to  designate  the 
fineness  of  the  fabric  or  the  machine,  and  it  is  understood  that 
the  same  number  of  dial  needles  is  also  used. 

Stitches  per  Foot.  —  The  above  designation  makes  the  length 
of  a  rib  stitch  include  both  a  cylinder  and  a  dial  stitch,  so  that 
thirty-two  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  means  thirty-two  cylinder 
stitches  and  thirty-two  dial  stitches,  or  what  would  be  sixty-four 
stitches  in  plain  flat  fabric. 

Illustration  4  shows  a  front  view  and  an  edge  viiew  of  a  tight 
rib  stitch.    The  following  is  evident : 


Illustration  4. 


Dimensions  of  Rib  Stitch.  —  The  width  of  the  wale  is  four 
diameters,  as  has  already  been  shown. 

The  thickness  of  the  fabric  is  four  diameters. 

The  height  of  the  stitch  is  four  diameters. 

Stitches  of  Different  Fabrics  of  the  Same  Characteristics  are 
Proportional  to  the  Diameter  of  the  Yarn.  —  From  the  above  it 
follows  that  the  stitch  is  proportional  to  the  diameter  of  the  yarn, 
for  if  the  diameter  is  doubled,  every  dimension  of  the  stitch  will 


22 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


be  doubled,  including  the  length  of  yarn  in  the  stitch.  In  other 
words,  corresponding  stitches  are  proportional  to  the  diameter  of 
the  yarn.  The  student  should  fix  this  thoroughly  in  his  mind. 
A  good  way  of  so  doing  is  to  look  at  Illustration  4  through  a 
reading  glass  held  at  different  distances  from  the  illustration. 
The  size  of  the  stitches  w^ill  increase  and  decrease  just  as  the 
diameter  of  the  yarn  does.  Note  that  these  different  sized 
stitches  seen  through  the  glass  are  corresponding  stitches  — 
that  is,  the  tightest  for  any  given  diameter  of  yarn.  But  the 
rule  holds  for  any  other  corresponding  stitches  regardless  of  their 
length. 

Fabrics  of  Different  Characteristics  have  Disproportionate 
Stitches.  —  However,  for  stitches  which  do  not  correspond, 
whereas  the  width  and  thickness  must  be  proportional  to  the  diameter 
of  the  yarn,  the  length  of  yarn  in  the  stitch  and  consequently  the 
height  of  the  stitch  are  not  proportional. 

If  the  stitches  are  not  proportional,  the  fabrics  are  different. 
So  the  converse  of  the  rule  is  true;  that  is,  in  dissimilar  fabrics 
the  lengths  of  yarn  in  the  stitches  are  not  proportional  to  the  di- 
ameters of  the  yarn. 

Relation  of  Yam  Diameter  and  Needle  Spacing.  —  Suitable 
yarn  is  that  which  the  machine  most  economicallj'  converts  into 
the  most  desirable  fabric.  The  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  proportional 
to  the  spacing  of  the  needles.  A  convenient  proof  of  this  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  ordinarily  the  width  of  the  fabric  is  proportional 
to  the  width  or  diameter  of  the  machine.  From  this  it  follows 
that  when  the  number  of  needles  is  increased  (i.e.  when  the  cut 
is  made  finer)  the  width  of  the  wales  must  be  proportionally 
decreased  or  else  the  fabric  would  be  made  wider. 

Proofs  of  Relation  of  Yarn  Diameter  and  Needle  Spacing.  — 
The  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  proportional  to  the  width  of  the 
wale.  Consequently,  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  reduced  in 
proportion  to  the  spacing  of  the  needles.  This  important  re- 
lation of  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  to  the  needle  spacing  was 
made  public  by  Gustav  Willkomm,  who  observed  it  from  a 
comparison  of  the  needle  spacing  of  hosiery  frames  and  the  yam 
diameter:  it  was  much  later  independently  observed  from  a 
comparison  of  the  gauge  and  corresponding  yam  diameter  of 
American  and  Canadian  practice;  and  w^as  soon  after  announced 
to  be  a  general  relation  dictated  by  the  characteristics  of  knit 
fabrics  and  conformed  to  by  the  machine  manufacturers  or  users 


I^Elements  of  Knitting 


23 


Relation  of  Yarn  Diameter  and  Needle  Spacing  is  Elastic.  — 

Since  all  practical  machines  will  knit  successfully  yarn  differ- 
ing in  diameter  within  a  wide  range,  there  is  naturally  room  for 
a  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  proportion  of  yarn  diameter 
to  needle  spacing,  but  whatever  -proportion  is  selected  for  any  one 
kind  and  cut  of  machine  is  equally  suitable  on  all  the  other  cuts. 
The  proportions  used  here  are  from  quite  extensive  practice  and 
are  useful,  but  should  not  be  taken  as  final.  Indeed,  from  the 
principles  previously  explained  and  from  the  application  of 
them,  explained  hereafter,  the  knitter  may  derive  his  own  pro- 
portions. 

Formulas  of  Yarn  and  Cut  Relation.  —  For  instance,  we  have 
the  rule  that  for  corresponding  fabrics 

Dia.  yarn 


Needle  spacing 
and  remembering  that 


a  constant,    ....  (1) 


we  have 


The  cut  =  y^r~rr'  ^  ,  .    .   .  (2) 

Needle  spacmg 


Needle  spacing  =   (3) 


Substituting  in  (1)  the  value  of  needle  spacing  in  (3)  we  have 

Dia.  yarn  X  Cut  =  a  constant  (4) 

That  is,  as  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  increases,  the  cut  de- 
creases and  vice  versa.    To  use  this  rule  with  the  coils  instead 

of  the  diameter,  substitute  for  diameter  of  yarn  which 

gives         =  a  constant.  Similarly,  p^-^i — Cut    —  _  ^  ^.^j^g^^j^^ 
Coils  Coils  per  ^  inch 

Suppose  the  knitter  is  running  satisfactorily  12  cut  machines 
and  the  yarn  shows  51  coils  in  half  an  inch.  Then  for  his  con- 
ditions 

Constant  =  Cut  ^  12  ^  1 

Coils  per  ^  inch     51  4.25 

Consequently,  his  rule  for  such  conditions  is 
Cut  =        X  coils  per  ^  inch. 


24 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


If  he  runs  heavier  or  hghter  yarn,  the  constants  for  such  con- 
ditions may  be  derived  in  the  same  manner.  The  rule  is  ap- 
plicable to  all  knitting  machinery,  but  the  constant  is  different 
for  different  types  of  machine  because  differences  in  structure 
limit  the  size  of  the  yam  to  be  used.  Spring-needle  machines 
with  jack  sinkers,  such  as  the  Cotton  and  the  Fouquet  types,  can 
use  hea\-y-  yarn  and,  consequently,  a  very  wide  range  of  yarn. 
Spring-needle  fixed-blade  loop-wheel  machines  are  restricted 
to  light  yarn.  Circular  latch-needle  machines  have  a  nar- 
rower range  than  loop-wheel  machines,  and  the  use  of  two 
sets  of  needles  generally  restricts  the  range  still  more.  Con- 
stants for  several  types  of  machines  are  given  elsewhere. 

Relation  of  Yam  Number  and  Diameter,  and  Machine  Cut 

The  cotton  number  of  yam  is  the  number  of  yards  in  one 
pound  divided  by  840.  Or,  it  is  the  number  of  840  yard  hanks 
in  a  pound.  Hank  is  the  name  given  to  a  fixed  length  of  yarn. 
The  hank  of  actual  yam  is  generally  coiled  and  twisted,  since 
it  is  too  long  to  handle  otherwise.  Those  who  are  famihar  with 
yarn  numbering  have  no  trouble  in  reahzing  that  the  yarn  number 
is  1  the  weight  of  a  hank;  since  if  each  hank  weighed  half  a 
pound,  there  would  be  two  hanks  to  the  pound,  and  the  yarn 
would  be  number  two,  which  is  the  same  as  dividing  1  by  ^,  the 
weight  of  the  hank.  However,  those  who  are  not  familiar  with 
yarn  numbering  sometimes  have  diflSculty  in  grasping  the  hank 
idea,  and  even  those  who  are  famihar  with  the  subject  some- 
times become  confused  when  thej-  try  to  figure  out  the  relation 
of  the  diameter  to  the  number.  The  following  analog may  make 
the  matter  clearer.  Suppose  that  instead  of  soft  fuzzy  twisted 
material,  yam  is  hard  and  smooth  and  round  hke  a  lead  pencil, 
but  still  continuous  in  length.  Then  suppose  that  the  yam  num- 
ber is  the  number  of  one-inch  pieces  in  a  pound,  since  it  is  easier 
to  imagine  a  one-inch  piece  than  an  840-yard  piece.  If  one  inch  of 
a  certain  piece  weighed  one-tenth  of  a  pound,  then  it  would  take 
ten  pieces  to  weigh  a  pound,  so  that  yarn  would  be  number  ten. 
The  number  ten  could  also  be  obtained  by  dividing  1  by  the 
weight  of  one  inch,  the  standard  length.  Consequently, 


Elements  of  Knitting 


25 


In  other  words,  the  number  equals  one  divided  by  the  weight  of 
a  piece  one  inch  long.  Therefore,  the  diameter  is  the  only  di- 
mension which  can  be  changed,  since  the  length  is  fixed,  namely 
1  inch.  But  the  weight  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
diameter.  That  is  to  say,  if  the  diameter  is  doubled,  the  weight 
is  made  four  times  as  much;  but  two  multiplied  by  two  equals 
four,  so  the  proportional  weight  after  doubling  the  diameter 
may  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the  diameter  by  itself,  i.e.  by 
squaring  it.  But  when  the  diameter  increases,  the  weight  does 
the  same,  consequently,  the  number  decreases.  Therefore  a 
thick  piece  of  yarn  has  a  smaller  number  than  a  thin  piece. 
This  brings  the  illustration  to  the  desired  point,  which  is  that 
the  yarn  numbers  are  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the 
yarn  diameters.  Inversely  means  inverted,  or  upside  down.  Con- 
sequently, to  get  the  relative  numbers  of  yarn  square  their 
diameters  and  turn  the  squares  upside  down,  that  is,  for  each 
yarn  divide  one  by  the  diameter  squared.  These  squared  diam- 
eters turned  upside  down  will  be  to  each  other  as  the  yarn 
numbers.  This  holds  just  as  true  of  the  pieces  of  actual  yarn 
as  it  does  of  the  imaginary  pieces  of  smooth  round  wood,  for 
it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  diameter  can  be  measured 
readily,  or  whether  the  standard  length  is  long  or  short,  the  yarn 
numbers  are  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  yarn 
diameters.    Expressed  in  a  formula  this  is 

iConstant 

Transforming, 

,  Constant 
=  No. 

But  from  equation  (4) 

Dia.  X  Cut  =  Constant, 
,  Constant 


Constant  Constant 
(^^-(^^  No.     =     Cut^  ' 

Inverting 

No  Cuf^ 

Constant 

Note  that  the  constants  are  not  changed  since  their  actual 
values  are  not  yet  required. 


26 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


In  other  words,  the  number  of  the  yarn  is  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  cut.  This  deduction  was  originally  made  by 
Gustav  Willkomm.  It  follows  naturally  from  his  observation 
that  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  proportional  to  the  needle 
spacing. 

Foundation  Principles.  —  It  has  been  shown  from  considera- 
tion of  the  individual  rib  stitch  that  stitches  —  and  consequently 
fabrics  —  of  the  same  characteristics  are  in  every  respect  pro- 
portional to  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  from  which  they  are  formed 
and  conversely  that  when  the  proportion  of  the  height  of  the 
stitch  to  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  changed,  the  characteristics 
of  the  stitch  and  consequently  of  the  fabric  are  changed.  Since 
these  are  the  foundation  principles  of  knit  fabrics,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  understood.  The  dependence  of  these  basic  prin- 
ciples on  the  diameter  of  the  yam  makes  the  diameter  of  the 
yarn  the  foundation  fact  in  knitting.  There  are  other  facts 
considered  elsewhere,  but  the  diameter  leads  in  importance. 

Changing  the  Characteristics  of  the  Fabric.  —  To  return  to  the 
foundation  principles  of  the  fabric  it  will  be  noticed  that  there  are 
as  a  rule  with  any  one  kind  of  yarn  only  two  factors  which  may  he 
changed,  that  is,  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  and  the  length  of  yarn  in  the 
stitch,  each  of  which  influences  the  height  of  the  loop  and  con- 
sequently the  number  of  courses  per  inch;  also  that  the  width 
of  the  wale  and  the  thickness  of  the  fabric  are  proportional  to  the 
diameter  of  the  yarn  and  independent  of  the  length  of  the  stitch 
except  for  extremes  which  are  considered  elsewhere. 

Three  General  Cases.  —  For  this  discussion  the  following 
combinations  are  considered : 

1.  Stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  constant,  yarn  diameter  varied. 

2,  Stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  varied,  yarn  diameter  constant. 

•3.  Stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  and  yarn  diameter  varied  so  that 
the  stitches  per  foot  multiplied  by  the  yarn  diameter  equals  a 
constant  —  i.e.,  the  stitches  per  foot  increase  just  as  the  diameter 
decreases. 

What  Determines  Good  Fabric.  —  Nos.  1  and  2  are  readily  | 

understood.  No.  3  is  the  condition  for  fabrics  of  different  fine- 
ness but  of  the  same  characteristics.  In  other  words,  if  a  lot  of 
machines  from  the  coarsest  to  the  finest  were  started  in  a  com- 
munity of  practical  knitters  and  the  fabrics  were  compared  after 
the  machines  were  in  commercial  operation,  it  would  be  found 
that  the  product  of  the  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  multiplied  by  the 


Elements  of  Knitting 


27 


yarn  diameter  would  be  one  and  the  same  constant  for  all  of  the 
fabrics,  of  course  with  slight  variations.  The  reasons  for  this 
are  that  in  any  one  community  there  is  an  idea  of  what  char- 
acteristics are  required  for  good  fabric,  whether  coarse  or  fine, 
so  the  yarn  and  stitch  would  be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  these 
characteristics  on  the  different  cut  machines,  with  the  result 
that  the  product  of  the  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  and  the  diameter 
of  the  yarn  would  be  a  certain  constant,  for  this  is  the  condition 
for  fabrics  of  different  fineness  but  of  the  same  characteristics. 
Consequently,  the  third  combination  is  the  most  important  one, 
for  it  represents  average  knitting  conditions,  whereas  combina- 
tions 1  and  2,  which  range  from  the  extreme  of  impracticability 
of  operation  to  that  of  instability  of  fabric,  represent  abnormal 
conditions  generally  and  average  conditions  only  between  the 
limits  of  the  range.  However,  their  consideration  is  necessary 
in  order  to  understand  the  subject. 

Stitches  per  Foot  Constant  and  Yam  Diameter  Varied.  {The 
first  case.)  —  It  is  found  by  experiment  that  when  the  stitch  is  kept 
constant  and  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  varied,  the  courses  and 
wales  per  unit  of  length  change  so  that  their  product  is  a  con- 
stant quantity.  For  instance,  suppose  that  at  a  certain  stitch 
and  with  a  certain  yarn  the  wales  and  courses  are  each  10  per 
inch.  Then  the  product  of  the  wales  and  courses  is  100.  If  now 
the  size  of  the  yarn  is  either  increased  or  diminished,  the  prod- 
uct of  the  courses  and  wales  will  still  remain  100.  But  it  has 
already  been  shown  that  the  width  of  the  wale  changes  in  pro- 
portion to  the  diameter  of  the  yarn,  from  which  it  is  possible  to 
determine  the  change  in  the  wales,  after  which  the  change  in  the 
courses  may  be  determined  by  dividing  the  number  of  wales  per 
inch  into  the  constant  product  of  the  wales  and  the  courses. 
Suppose  that  the  yarn  is  increased  in  diameter  10  per  cent. 
Then  the  width  of  the  wale  will  also  be  increased  10  per  cent. 

Relation  of  Wales  and  Courses.  —  Consequently,  the  number 
of  wales  per  inch  after  the  change  will  be  10  divided  by  1.1,  which 
is  9.09.  Now  divide  100,  the  constant  product,  by  9.09,  the  new 
number  of  wales,  which  gives  11,  the  new  number  of  courses. 
This  relation  may  be  represented  graphically  as  in  Illustration  5, 
which  shows  a  piece  of  cross-section  paper  with  courses  laid  off 
on  the  left  scale  upward  from  the  zero  at  the  lower  left  corner, 
and  wales  laid  off  at  the  bottom  from  the  same  starting  point 
toward  the  right.    A  horizontal  line  from  the  10-course  mark 


28 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


meets  a  vertical  line  from  the  10-wale  mark,  making  a  square 
in  the  lower  left  corner  of  the  paper,  and  a  curve  passes  through 
the  upper  right  corner  of  the  square.  This  curve  contains  the 
intersections  of  all  of  the  Unes  whose  product  is  100.  The  points 
in  it  are  found  by  assuming  different  numbers  of  wales  and  divid- 
ing them  into  100  to  get  the  corresponding  courses.   After  the 


1  i 

\ 

1 

i  1  II 

N 

— 

•ses  pe 

icl 

— 

W 

lie 

sp 

!r  Inch 

-jr 

1        2        3       4        5       6        7        8        9      10      11      12      13  li 


lUiiatration  5. 

All  rectangles  with  one  corner  at  zero  and  the  diagonally  opposite  corner  in 
the  curve  contain  the  same  number  of  stitches.  This  is  the  case  with  knit 
fabric  when  only  the  size  of  the  yarn  is  changed.  That  is  to  say,  for  fabric 
from  any  machine,  when  only  the  yarn  size  is  changed,  the  number  of 
stitches  per  unit  of  area  remains  constant.  In  other  words,  changing  only 
the  yarn  size  makes  no  change  in  the  number  of  stitches  per  square  inch. 

curve  is  obtained,  when  the  number  of  courses  (or  wales)  is 
known,  the  corresponding  number  of  wales  (or  courses)  is  readily- 
found  by  following  the  known  number  out  to  the  curve  and  then 
reading  the  desired  number  from  the  other  scale  For  instance, 
it  has  just  been  determined  that  after  an  increase  in  the  diam- 
eter of  the  yam  of  10  per  cent  the  number  of  wales  per  inch  has 


Elements  of  Knitting 


29 


changed  from  10  to  9.09.  Start  from  9.09  wales  and  follow  the 
dotted  line  out  to  the  curve  and  then  to  the  left  to  the  course 
scale  which  it  intersects  at  11,  the  corresponding  number  of 
courses. 

Product  of  Wales  and  Courses  Dependent  on  Stitches  per 
Foot  of  Yam.  —  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  curve  holds 
only  for  one  set  of  conditions  of  not  only  stitch  but  kind  of  yarn 
and  machine.  Change  in  any  of  these  factors  moves  the  curve 
toward  or  from  the  origin  (the  zero),  but  does  not  alter  its  form. 
For  instance,  if  the  stitch  is  made  tighter  —  that  is,  if  the  number 
of  stitches  per  foot  is  increased  —  then  the  curve  will  be  moved 
farther  to  the  right  and  upward,  but  it  will  be  obtainable  in  the 
same  way,  namely,  by  dividing  the  constant  product  of  wales 
and  courses  by  the  number  of  wales,  which  number  is  obtainable 
from  the  diameter  of  the  yarn,  and  then  marking  the  intersections 
of  the  corresponding  wales  and  courses.  The  constant  product 
is  so  far  best  obtained  by  experiment  with  the  machine  and  the 
kind  of  yarn  in  question. 

Diameter  of  Yam  and  Stitches  per  Foot  of  Yam  Determine 
Characteristics  of  Fabric  for  any  one  Kind  of  Yarn.  —  It  should 
be  explained  here  that  theoretically  the  machine  has  nothing  to 
do  with  these  considerations,  but  it  has  become  so  common  to 
consider  the  dimensions  of  the  fabric,  i.e.,  wales,  courses,  etc., 
dependent  on  the  machine,  that  confusion  is  likely  to  result  from 
a  sudden  departure  from  that  idea.  A  little  reflection  will  show 
at  once  how  erroneous  the  idea  is.  Hand  knitting  preceded 
machine  knitting,  and  with  hand  needles  there  was  not  —  nor  is 
to-day  —  any  such  thing  as  needle  spacing,  consequently,  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  cut  or  gauge,  and  yet  a  big  variety  of  yarn 
numbers  and  lengths  of  stitch  were  and  are  usable  with  hand 
knitting.  This  was  evidently  forgotten  when  machine  knitting 
became  common;  and  from  the  fact  that  a  certain  degree  of  fine- 
ness of  fabric  came  from  a  certain  degree  of  fineness  of  machine, 
the  notion  became  popular  that  the  cut  of  the  machine  deter- 
mined the  fineness  of  the  fabric.  This  notion  really  has  its 
foundation  in  the  limitations  of  the  machine  rather  than  in  its 
adaptation  to  any  particular  work.  It  is  possible  to  conceive  of 
an  infinitely  fine,  but  infinitely  strong,  needle  drawing  a  very  long 
loop  in  a  very  large  roving,  which  roving  would  determine  the 
width  of  the  loop  entirely  independent  of  the  needle.  However, 
in  practice  there  are  no  infinitely  strong  needles,  so  we  do  not 


30 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


meet  such  ideal  machines.  Consequently  the  diameter  of  the 
yarn  has  to  be  proportional  to  the  needle  spacing,  from  which  has 
come  the  mistaken  conclusion  that  the  spacing  of  the  needles 
determines  the  fineness  of  the  fabric,  whereas  it  is  really  deter- 
mined by  the  diameter  of  the  yarn. 


1 

1  1 

i  1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Y 

irc 

s 

1  !  ^ 

1  1 

Y 

irc 

a       .2      .3       A       .5       .6       .7       .8       .9       1.0      1.1     1.2  1.3 

Illustration  6. 


All  rectangles  with  one  comer  at  zero  and  the  diagonally  opposite  comer  in 
the  curve  have  the  same  area.  These  rectangles  represent  the  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  fabric  for  changes  in  the  diameter  of  the  yarn, 
but  no  change  in  the  number  of  needles,  number  of  knitted  courses,  and 
number  of  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn.  In  other  words,  on  a  certain  number 
of  needles  with  a  fixed  length  of  loop,  knit  a  certain  number  of  courses 
with  different  sized  yarn  and  every  resulting  piece  of  fabric  will  just  fit  under 
a  curve  of  this  character. 

Relation  of  Width  and  Height  of  a  given  Piece  of  Fabric.  — 

The  relation  of  the  wales  and  courses  for  stitches  constant  and 
yarn  variable  was  shown  on  page  28.  The  relation  of  the  width 
and  height  of  a  given  piece  of  knit  fabric  for  the  same  conditions 
may  be  similarly  shown.    Suppose  that  a  piece  of  fabric  is  knit  so 


Elements  of  linitting 


31 


that  it  is  just  one  yard  square.  Moreover,  suppose  that  the  only 
change  to  be  made  is  in  the  diameter  of  the  yarn.  Illustration  6 
shows  a  chart  similar  to  Illustration  5,  except  laid  off  on  both 
scales  in  yards  and  tenths  of  yards.  The  square  enclosed  by  the 
scale  lines  and  the  two  lines  drawn  from  1  to  the  curve  represents 
the  square  yard  of  cloth  just  mentioned.  The  curve  is  so  drawn 
that  it  will  contain  the  upper  right  corner  of  all  rectangles  whose 
area  is  one.  Now  make  another  piece  of  cloth  the  same  as  before, 
but  with  yarn  10  per  cent  larger  in  diameter.  Since  all  conditions 
except  the  size  of  the  yarn  are  the  same,  there  will  be  the  former 
total  number  of  wales  and  courses.  It  is  known  that  the  wales 
will  be  wider  in  proportion  to  the  increased  diameter  of  the  yarn, 
so  this  piece  of  fabric  will  be  l.l  yards  in  width.  The  height 
may  be  obtained  by  working  through  the  wales  and  courses.  The 

new  number  of  wales  per  inch  will  be  in  the  proportion  of  ^  = 

0.909.    Consequently,  the  new  number  of  courses  per  inch  will 

be  in  the  proportion  of  q~^^  =  1.10.    But  since  the  number  of 

courses  is  not  changed,  the  height  of  the  fabric  will  be  1  yard  X 

ji-  =  0.909.    The  product  of  the  width,  1.10,  and  the  height, 

0.909,  is  1,  consequently  the  piece  of  fabric  will  still  contain  one 
square  yard,  so  that  when  it  is  drawn  on  the  chart,  its  upper  right 
corner  will  be  in  the  curve  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  Com- 
paring the  wale  and  course  chart,  5,  with  the  square  yard  chart, 
6,  the  observer  sees  that  one  is  the  reverse  of  the  other,  but  that 
in  each  case  the  product  of  the  dimensions  is  a  constant. 

Production  in  Square  Yards.  —  From  the  above  it  follows  that 
when  the  stitch  is  constant  and  the  yarn  is  variable,  the  product 
of  the  width  and  the  height  of  a  piece  of  fabric  (with  the  same 
number  of  stitches)  is  constant.  Therefore,  the  'production  in 
square  yards  of  a  knitting  machine  with  stitches  constant  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  yarn,  for  what  is  gained  in  width  by  the  use  of 
larger  yarn  is  lost  in  length  by  the  drawing  together  of  the 
courses.  Moreover,  a  square  yard  contains  a  constant  length  of  yarn. 

Length  of  Yarn  in  a  Square  Yard  of  Fabric.  —  From  the  above, 
and  since  the  (cotton)  number  of  yarn  is  inversely  proportional  to 
the  weight  of  a  constant  length,  the  weight  per  square  yard  goes 
up  as  the  number  of  the  yarn  goes  down,  i.e.,  the  product  of  the 
weight  per  square  yard  and  the  number  of  the  yarn  is  a  constant. 


32 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Proportioning  Weight  per  Square  Yard  and  per  Dozen  Gar- 
ments. —  When  it  is  desired  to  change  the  weight  of  piece  fabric 
per  yard,  or  goods  per  dozen,  the  change  of  yarn  may  be  calcu- 
lated by  the  simple  rule 

Present  weight  X  present  yarn  ^  desired  weight  =  desired  yarn. 

However,  with  garments  care  must  be  exercised  to  cut  the  same 
number  of  yards,  which  means  that  if  the  size  of  the  yarn  is 
increased,  the  sizes  must  be  cut  from  smaller  diameters  of  ma- 
chine. It  must  be  remembered,  also,  that  the  characteristics  of 
the  fabric  will  be  changed,  since  the  same  characteristics  are 
obtained  only  when  the  length  of  yarn  in  the  stitch  is  proportional 
to  the  diameter  of  the  yarn,  which  is  the  same  as  to  say  that  the 
product  of  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  and  the  stitches  per  foot  of 
3^arn  is  a  constant. 

Diameter  of  Yarn  Constant,  Stitches  per  Foot  of  Yam  Varied. 
—  The  Second  Case.  Experiments  show  that  the  courses  vary  in 
some  proportion  to  the  stitches  per  foot,  that  is  to  say,  as  the 
stitches  per  foot  are  increased  the  courses  increase.  The  wales, 
of  course,  remain  constant.  Therefore,  the  weight  per  yard 
is  increased,  but  not  in  the  proportion  in  which  the  courses  are 
increased,  because  the  increase  in  the  stitches  per  foot  lessens  the 
length  of  yarn  in  a  course.  Consequently  the  increase  in  weight 
per  yard  is  a  slow  differential  between  the  gain  in  weight  due  to 
increased  courses  and  the  loss  due  to  decreased  length  of  yarn  in 
a  course.  No  simple  expression  for  this  change  in  weight  has  yet 
been  found. 

Regular  Fabrics.  —  The  Third  Case,  that  in  which  the  product 
of  the  stitches  per  foot  and  the  diameter  of  the  yam  is  constant, 
is  illustrated,  regarding  the  wales,  courses  and  stitches  by 
Illustration  7,  with  wales  on  the  left  scale  and  courses  on  the 
bottom  scale.  Several  curves  representing  the  constant  prod- 
ucts of  wales  and  courses  for  different  stitches  are  shown.  The 
45-degree  diagonal  drawn  through  the  origin  upward  to  the  right 
is  the  dividing  line  for  wales  equal  to  courses.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  as  the  wales  increase  the  courses  increase  equally,  but  the 
stitches  per  foot  must  increase  also.  This  fabric  is  looser  than 
is  generally  considered  desirable  in  America,  where  the  courses 
and  wales  are  in  the  proportion  of  about  12.5  to  10,  which  pro- 
portion is  used  in  this  book.  The  line  representing  it  is  just 
below  the  diagonal.    However,  the  selection  of  any  proportion 


Elements  of  Knitting 


33 


is  largely  a  matter  of  choice.  The  main  fact  is  that  for  corre- 
sponding fabrics  the  stitch  must  be  proportional  throughout. 
This  simple  condition  makes  possible  the  use  of  a  remarkable 
number  of  simple  equations  which  are  useful  for  showing  not  only 


Illustration  7. 

Chart  showing  the  relation  of  wales,  courses,  and  stitches  in  fabrics  of  the 

same  characteristics. 
The  wales  per  inch  increase  as  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  decreases. 
The  courses  per  inch  are  proportional  to  the  wales  per  inch. 
The  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  are  proportional  to  the  wales  per  inch. 


the  proportionate  results  of  a  change,  but  also  the  concrete  re- 
sults, so  that  knitting  moves  from  a  rule-of-thumb  stage  —  rather 
a  no-rule  stage  —  to  one  of  comparative  certainty.  Elsewhere  are 
given  fairly  complete  sets  of  rules  showing  the  relations  of  all  of 
the  ordinary  dimensions  used  in  knitting.   They  are  based  on  the 


34  The  Science  of  Knitting 

principles  just  explained  and  on  constants  derived  from  measure- 
ment of  some  200  samples  of  ribbed  fabric  made  of  carded  mule- 
spun  hosiery  yarn.  Among  the  important  rib-fabric  relations 
may  be  noted  here  the  following,  although  the  reader  is  referred 
to  page  36  which  gives  the  conditions  on  which  the  relations  are 
based,  and  to  pages  38  and  39  which  give  enough  relations  for 
ordinary  requirements. 

Some  Relations  of  Regular  Rib  Fabrics.  — 

Cut  of  machine  =  „  .,-  ^ — ^  

8.57  Dia.  of  yarn 

Stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  =  ^  .,  .  ^^.^ —  

2.14  Dia.  of  yarn 

Courses  per  inch  =  „  ^  t-.-  ^  r  

3.2  Dia-  of  yarn 

Wt.  per  square  yard       =  38  Dia.  of  yarn. 

Production,  pounds  per  feed  per  10  hours  =  57,772  (Dia.  of  yarn.)^. 

Production,  square  yards  per  feed,  per  10  hours  =  1520  Dia. 

of  yarn. 


PRACTICAL  VARIATIONS  FROM  KNITTING  RULES 

It  is  unnecessary  to  tell  knitters  that  knitting  is  not  an  exact 
science.  They  know  this  so  well  that  they  have  become  ex- 
tremists on  the  subject,  so  that  they  are  inclined  to  discredit  all 
rules.  Consequently,  before  a  rule  receives  practical  considera- 
tion it  is  necessary  for  the  sponsor  to  proclaim  that  he  knows 
there  are  exceptions  to  it  in  spite  of  the  adage  that  there  are 
exceptions  to  all  rules.  So  the  practical  variations  which  follow 
are  mentioned  with  the  double  object  of  meeting  the  above 
necessity  and  of  pointing  out  where  exceptions  may  be  most 
expected . 

The  Shape  of  Yarn.  —  Yarn  is  supposed  to  be  round;  but  it 
may  be  almost  any  other  shape,  except  angular  or  absolutely 
flat.  Soft  yarn  is  frequently  preferable  for  knitting,  and  the 
softness  is  usually  obtained  by  slack  twist;  so  that  instead  of  a 
compact  cylindrical  mass  like  that  of  six-cord  thread,  the  yarn 
consists  of  a  bundle  of  fibers  slackly  twisted  together  and  easily 
susceptible  to  pressure  distortions.  However,  the  general  form 
is  cylindrical,  and  the  fabric  formed  from  it  corresponds  closely 
to  what  is  expected  from  cylindrical  elements,  so  it  is  permissible 
to  consider  the  yarn  cylindrical,  if  allowances  are  made  for  dis- 
tortion from  the  cylindrical  form.    This  distortion  is  practically 


Practical  Variations  from  Knitting  Rules  35 


proportional  for  similar  conditions.  For  instance,  suppose  that 
owing  to  compression  the  width  of  a  fabric  is  10  per  cent  less 
than  that  calculated  on  the  assumption  that  the  thread  is 
cylindrical.  Then  that  proportion,  10  per  cent  less,  is  appli- 
cable to  fabrics  on  other  cuts  made  of  the  same  kind  of  yarn 
with  a  stitch  proportional  to  the  diameter  of  the  yarn.  In 
other  words,  results  based  on  cylindrical  yarn  are  valuable  as 
proportions,  even  when  distortion  of  the  yarn  prevents  use  of 
the  absolute  values,  provided  the  distortion  is  caused  by  simi- 
lar conditions. 

Resilience  or  Resistance  to  Bending.  —  The  structure  of  the 
knit  stitch  depends  on  resistance  to  bending,  the  force  of  which 
keeps  the  wales  together  in  normal  fabrics.  Evidently  this 
force  depends  on  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  fiber,  the  twist 
of  the  yarn  and  other  factors.  Also,  it  depends  on  the  curva- 
ture to  which  the  yarn  is  subjected.  An  abrupt  curve  is  re- 
sisted more  than  an  easy  one.  The  normal  knitting  curve  has 
a  radius  of  approximately  1|  diameters  of  yarn.  If  the  loop  is 
so  long  that  this  radius  is  much  increased,  there  will  not  be 
enough  force  to  hold  the  loops  closed,  so  that  the  width  will 
increase  rapidly,  the  elasticity  will  decrease  and  the  fabric 
will  become  shapeless.  At  the  other  extreme  of  stitch,  that 
is  very  tight,  the  curvature  is  shortened  by  lengthwise  ten- 
sion on  the  yarn  which  hugs  the  loops  together,  and  nar- 
rows the  fabric  so  that  the  loops  lose  their  natural  easy 
curves.  The  rules  are  not  intended  to  apply  to  such  fab- 
rics, since  they  are  so  "  sleazy "  on  the  one  hand  and  so 
"  boardy  "  on  the  other  that  they  comprise  an  insignificant 
part  of  Imitting. 

Most  yarn  used  in  knitting  is  susceptible  of  a  sufficiently 
short  bend  to  bring  the  wales  together,  but  it  can  be  realized 
that  spring  wire  would  not  take  such  a  bend,  and  that  yarn  of 
a  wiry  nature  would  take  a  bend  between  that  of  wire  and  that 
of  soft  cotton  yarn.  Accordingly,  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
fabrics  made  from  wiry  yarn  will  be  wider  than  those  made  from 
the  same  size  of  soft  cotton  yarn.  Sizing,  dyeing,  bleaching  — 
in  short,  treatment  of  almost  any  kind  —  alters  the  bending 

I    property  of  yarn,  so  that  allowance  should  be  made  therefor, 

I    when  accuracy  is  required. 

Stitch  Distortion.  —  The  popular  impression   is  that  the 
machine  forms  the  stitch  somewhat  as  a  die  forms  a  coin.  But, 


36 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


ideally,  the  machine  should  draw  through  each  other,  loops  of  a 
proper  length  depending  on  the  diameter  of  the  yarn,  and  leave 
those  loops  to  take  the  form  dictated  by  their  elasticity  In 
actual  practice  there  exists  a  wide  range  of  stitches,  from  the 
ideal  to  those  pulled  far  out  of  shape.  This  distortion  may  be 
caused  by  excessive  take-up  tension,  by  too  tight  a  stitch  for 
the  yarn  and  cut,  by  improper  clearing  of  the  loops,  etc.  Some  of 
these  distortions  are  quite  permanent,  such  as  the  widening  of 
the  fabric  by  a  spread  dial  stitch;  whereas  others  are  not,  such 
as  the  narrowing  due  to  take-up  tension,  which  narrowing  dis- 
appears more  or  less  quickly,  according  to  the  treatment  to 
which  the  fabric  is  subjected  after  knitting. 

There  are  other  causes  which  make  the  actual  results  differ 
from  the  rules  and  for  which  allowance  must  be  made  when 
unusual  accuracy  is  required.  But  knitting  is  no  exception  in 
this  regard.  Excepting  mathematics,  no  science  is  exact,  and 
knitting  occupies  an  intermediate  ground  among  the  sciences 
(or  scientific  arts),  since  it  is  not  so  exact  as  some  but  more 
exact  than  others.  Moreover,  it  will  improve  in  exactness 
since  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect  of  these  disturbing  factors 
may  be  determined  just  as  the  general  principles  of  knitting 
have  been  determined,  so  that  rules  may  be  made  for  the  proper 
allowance  under  given  conditions. 

EXPLANATION  OF  FORMULAS  FOR  REGULAR  RIB  FABRICS 

These  formulas  are  based  on  the  following  relations : 

Yarn  number  =  • 

D 

Stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  =  4  Cut. 

1 

Yarn  diameter 


21  VNo. 

Courses     Wales  =  1.25. 

Tensile  strength  of  thread  =  6000  (diameter) 

Diametral  revolutions  per  minute  =  700  (35  r.p.m.  of  a  20-inch 

cyl.). 

This  table  is  meant  for  the  practical  knitter,  so  the  explana- 
tion is  addressed  especially  to  him. 


Explanation  of  Formulas  for  Regular  Rib  Fabrics  37 

The  extreme  left-hand  column,  No.  1,  gives  details  of  rib 
fabric  about  which  the  knitter  should  have  definite  knowledge. 
The  other  columns  contain  simple  equations  which  give  that 
knowledge  expressed  in  as  many  different  ways  as  the  knitter 
may  need,  and  many  more  than  are  ordinarily  necessary.  There- 
fore, it  is  essential  that  he  should  know  which  are  the  most  im- 
portant.   A  brief  review  of  some  of  them  will  help  him  to  decide. 

Consider  first  the  column  headed  |  Coils  (No.  2)  which  means 
the  number  of  close  coils  of  yarn  per  half  inch,  such  as  it  is 
recommended  to  practice  getting  by  coiling  the  yarn  on  a  watch- 
chain  bar.  The  importance  of  learning  this  simple  method  of 
determining  the  size  of  yarn  should  be  understood.  If  a  geolo- 
gist is  given  a  little  piece  of  rock  he  is  supposed  to  be  able  to 
tell  what  it  is  and  what  can  be  done  with  it  without  asking  a  lot 
of  questions  about  it.  But  if  the  knitter  is  given  a  piece  of 
yarn,  he  has  to  ask  what  number  it  is,  or  ask  for  a  larger  piece 
and  a  yard  stick  (or  reel)  and  scales  before  he  can  do  anything 
but  guess  about  it,  and  even  after  he  does  know  the  number,  he 
is  more  learned  than  the  average  knitter  if  he  can  tell  what 
fabric  knit  from  it  will  look  like,  how  much  it  will  weigh  per 
yard,  how  many  pounds  and  square  yards  can  be  produced  per 
day,  etc.  This  J-Coil  column  puts  all  this  information  right 
into  his  hands,  provided  he  puts  the  formulas  into  practice, 
for  it  takes  practice  to  use  formulas  accurately,  just  as  it  does 
to  shoot  on  the  wing  accurately.  The  knitter  who  does  not 
,  use  his  formulas  before  he  needs  them  will  not  make  a  better 
showing  than  the  hunter  who  has  not  yet  fired  off  his  gun.  It 
is  hoped  that  every  knitter  who  is  interested  will  get  a  note 
book,  put  in  it  the  ^-Coil  column  (No.  2)  and  the  No.  column 
(No.  5)  and  put  them  to  the  test  by  coiling  a  piece  of  the 
yarn  he  is  knitting,  working  out  the  results  by  the  formulas  and 
then  comparing  the  theoretical  results  with  the  actual  results. 
Only  in  this  way  can  he  learn  one  of  the  most  important  things 
about  a  practical  formula,  that  is,  the  allowance  to  make  in 
using  it.  One  or  two  trials  are  not  sufficient.  Many  are 
needed,  but  whoever  makes  them  will  be  well  repaid,  for  he  can 
thereby  get  in  a  few  days  a  fund  of  extremely  useful  knowledge 
much  of  which  has  heretofore  been  unavailable,  and  the  balance 
of  which  has  been  obtainable  only  by  years  of  experience. 

The  following  explanations  may  be  of  use.  They  are  given 
in  order,  starting  at  the  head  of  the  |-Coil  column  (No.  2). 

The  first  two  equations  are  self  evident. 


38  The  Science  of  Knitting 


FORMULAS  FOR 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

^  Coils 

Coils 

Dia. 

No. 

Cut 

Stitches 
per  ft.  of 
yarn 

1  Coils 

\  Coils 

Coils 
2 

1 

2  Dia. 

10.5  Vno. 

4.2865  Cut 

1.0716  S. 

Coils 

2X3  Coils 

Coils 

1 

Dia. 

21v'n3'. 

8.573  Cut 

2.1433  S. 

Dia. 

1 

1 

Dia. 

1 

1 

1 

2x§  Coils 

Coils 

21V 

8.573  Cut 

2.1433  S. 

No. 

ih  Coils)2 

Coils2 

1 

Xo. 

Cut2 

Stitches2 

110.25 

441 

441  Dia.2 

6 

96 

Cut 

\  Coils 

Coils 

1 

2.4495  V  No. 

Cut 

Stitches 

4.2865 

8.573 

8.573  Dia. 

4 

Stitches 
per  foot  of 
yarn 

\  Coils 

Coils 

1 

9.798  V3^. 

4  Cut 

Stitches 

1.0716 

2.1431 

2.14325  Dia 

Wales  per 

\  Coils 

Coils 

1 

5.25  ^  No. 

2.143lCut 

Stitches 

in. 

2 

4 

4  Dia. 

1.866 

Courses 

§  Coils 

Coils 

1 

6.5625  VXo. 

2.679  Cut 

Stitches 

per  in. 

1.6 

3.2 

3.2  Dia. 

1.4932 

Wt.  per 
sq.  yd. 

18.987 

37.98 

37.98  Dia. 

1.808 

4.43 

17.72 

5  Coils 

Coils 

^  No. 

Cut 

Stitches 

c|  Lbs. 

o 

14,443 

57,772 

57,772  Dia.2 

131 

786 

12,576 

a  Coils)2 

Coils2 

No. 

■  Cut2 

Stitches2 

"£-3  Sq. 
£j  Yds. 

760.1 
\  Coils 

1520.2 
Coils 

1.^20  2  Din 

72.39 
v'N^. 

177.31 
Cut 

709.241 
Stitches 

Tensile 
strength 
along 

3000 

6000 

6000  Dia. 

285.7 

699.8 

2799 

pounds 
per  inch 
width,  T 

Tensile 
strength 
along 

\  Coils 

Coils 

"^No. 

Uut 

Stitches 

937.5 

1875 

1875  Dia. 

89.29 

218.7 

874.7 

courses, 
pounds 
per  inch 
width,  t 

h  Coils 

Coils 

Cut 

Stitches 

The  quantities  at  the  left  of  the  table  are 


Explanation  of  Formulas  for  Regular  Rib  Fabrics  39 


REGULAR  RIB  FABRICS 


8 

Wales 
per  inch 

9 

Courses 
per  inch 

10 

Wt.  per  yd. 



11  12 

Production,  1  feed, 
10  hours 

Tensile 
strength 
along 
wales, 
pounds 
per  inch 
width,  T 

Tensile 
strength 

along 
courses, 
pounds 
per  inch 
width, t 

Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

2  Wales 

1.6  Courses 

18.987 

120.17 

760.1 

3000 
T 

937.5 
t 

Wt.  sq.  yd. 

V  Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

4  Wales 

3.2  Courses 

37.98 

240.36 

1520  2 
Sq.  yds. 

6000 
T 

1875 

~t~ 

Wt.  sq.  yd. 

Pounds 

1 

4  Wales 

1 

Wt.  sq.  yd. 

Sq.  yds. 

T 
6000 

t 

1875  . 

V  Pounds 
240.36"^ 

3.2  Courses 

37.98 

1520.2 

Wales2 

Course  32 
^3.06 

3.269 

131 
Pounds 

5240 

81,625 

7973 

27.56 

(Wt.  per  yd.y^ 

(Sq.yds.)2 

Wales 
2J43I 

Courses 
2.679""" 

4.43 

1  77  Q1 

699.8 
T 

218.7 

nr 

Wt.  per  yd. 

'^^  Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

1.866  Wales 

1.4932 
Courses 

17.72 

112.14 

709.24 

2799 
T 

874.7 
t 

Wt.  per  yd. 

Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

Wales 

Courses 

9.495 

60.08 

OoU.UO 

1500 

468.75 

1.25 

Wt.  per  yd. 

^ Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

t 

1.25  Wales 

Courses 

11.868 

75.105 

475 

1875 

585.9 
t 

Wt.  per  yd. 

^  Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

9.495 
Wales 

11.868 
Courses 

Wt. 

Sq.  yds. 
40.04 

T 
157.9 

t 

49.34 

Pounds 

6.3305 

3610 

5641 

40.075  Wt.2 

Pounds 

(Sq.yds.)2 

623.48 

60.92 

Wales2 

Courses^ 

40.04 

380.05 
Wales 

475 

40.04  Wt. 

6.3245  V  P 

Yds. 

T 
3.947 

t 

Courses 

1.2335 
3.2  i 

1500 
Wales 

1875 
Courses 

157.9  Wt. 

24.97  Vp 

^3.947^ 

T 

468.75 
Wales 

585.9 
Courses 

49.34  Wt. 

7.804  Vp 

1.2335  X 
Sq.  yds. 

T 
3.2 

t 

expressed  in  terms  of  those  at  the  top. 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


1 

1 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

Production  per 
feed,  10  hours, 
700  diiunetral 
r.j).in. 

1  Sq.  yds. 

! 

.S^gSiiSggggigiiliiiiiiiSSSiii 

iiiiilliiiiiiiliiiilliiiiiiiii 

1 

Courses 
per  in. 

iiti 

stitches 
per  foot 
of  yarn 

5 

ot^oooo^            M            CO  ;2: 

Yarn 
dia. 

021295 
019441 
017998 
016835 
015873 
015057 
014357 
013740 
01:5207 
(112725 
012294 
0I1<K)4 

oiir)07 

.011223 
.0101)25 
.010040 

.010152 
.009929 
.009720 
,009523 
.009366 
009164 
,0()S'.)99 
0()SS43 
(108094 
.008553 
.008418 
.(K)8290 
.008167 

Coils 
per  in. 

iiU 

Square  root 
of  yarn 
number 

Explanation  of  Formulas  for  Regular  Rib  Fabrics  41 


Diameter  of  Yam.  —  This  is  useful  to  know,  although  it 
is  not  expected  that  the  practical  knitter  will  do  much  calcu- 
lating with  the  diameter,  since  the  coils  per  half  inch  are  more 
convenient. 

Number  of  Yam.  —  This  is  very  important,  but  the  user 
should  remember  that  it  does  not  always  give  the  exact  number 
which  is  obtained  by  weighing.  Of  what  use  is  it  then?  Of 
much  more  use  than  the  regular  number,  which  is  of  use  prin- 
cipally for  the  pounds  production  and  pounds  per  yard,  whereas 
the  number  determined  by  the  diameter  is  the  one  which  con- 
cerns the  running  of  the  machine,  the  wales,  the  courses,  the 
width  of  the  fabric,  and  the  square-yard  production,  all  of 
which  are  of  far  more  importance  to  the  knitter  than  the  others. 
Count  the  coils  in  half  an  inch,  multiply  them  together,  and 
divide  by  110.  The  quotient  is  the  cotton  number  of  the  yarn. 
Do  not  worry  about  the  decimal  point,  for  experience  will  show 
whether  the  yarn  is  2,  20,  or  200.  Practice  by  taking  one  short 
piece  of  yarn  and  coiling  it  several  times  to  see  what  the  average 
error  is.  One  coil  in  twenty,  over  or  under,  is  not  enough  to 
worry  about.  Some  yarns  <;annot  be  coiled  satisfactorily,  such 
as  thrown  silk  and  very  loosely-twisted  worsted.  But  probably 
95  per  cent  of  the  yarns  used  can  be  satisfactorily  coiled,  so  the 
method  should  not  be  abandoned  on  account  of  its  limitations 
until  a  superior  one  is  found. 

Notice  that  in  the  above  calculation  which  gives  the  final  result, 
a  covenient  approximation  to  the  exact  constant  is  used,  namely, 
110  instead  of  110.25,  which  practice  should  be  followed  in  every 
such  case.  But  when  these  formulas  are  used  for  the  derivation 
of  other  formulas  the  exact  constants  should  be  used  in  order  to 
avoid  discrepancies  between  the  derived  formulas. 

Cut.  —  The  correct  cut  (needles  per  inch)  for  a  given  yarn 
is  a  very  important  question  in  knitting.  Formerly,  before  it 
could  be  answered  at  all,  the  number  of  the  yarn  had  to  be 
known,  and  not  only  that,  but  it  had  to  be  expressed  in  the 
yarn  count  with  which  the  knitter  was  familiar.  Then  he 
could  give  an  idea  of  the  cut  on  which  to  use  it  in  the  light  of 
his  experience,  but  if  the  yarn  did  not  happen  to  be  just  the 
number  which  he  had  used,  he  was  very  likely  to  misjudge  since 
the  number  of  yarn  is  very  misleading  as  to  its  size.  What 
knitter  is  there,  who  in  order  to  find  the  relative  size  of  two 
yarns,  would  go  to  the  trouble  of  extracting  the  square  roots  of 


42 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


the  numbers  and  comparing  the  reciprocals  of  the  square  roots? 
Not  one  in  a  hundred.  Yet  that  is  the  simplest  way  of  com- 
paring the  sizes  of  yarns.  No  wonder  that  the  knitter  in  his 
search  for  simpUcity  should  get  the  erroneous  notion  that  the 
cut  should  be  proportional  to  the  yarn  number.  This  seems 
reasonable,  since  the  yarn  gets  finer  as  the  number  increases. 
But  it  has  made  trouble  for  lots  of  knitters  who  have  tried 
to  follow  it,  since  when  the  user  counted  that  in  going  from  a 
No.  10  to  a  No.  40  he  was  getting  yarn  only  one-fourth  as  large, 
in  reality,  it  was  half  as  large,  and  was  breaking  needles  to  an 
extent  not  indicated  by  the  rule.  But  here  is  a  rule  —  cut  from 
^  coils  —  which  makes  the  yarn  diameter  proportional  to  the 
size  of  the  spaces  through  which  the  yarn  has  to  go,  which  rep- 
resents good  average  practice,  and  which  is  apphcable  without 
yarn  numbers  at  all,  provided  a  little  piece  of  the  yarn  is  at 
hand.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  knitter  is  shown  a  sample 
of  yarn  too  small  to  reel  and  is  asked  if  it  is  adaptable  to  his 
machines.  Here  is  a  method  of  answering  the  question  quickly 
and  decisively.  Divide  the  coils  in  half  an  inch  by  4.29  and  the 
quotient  is  the  cut  which  is  generally  used  for  knitting  such 
yarn  economically. 

Stitches. — The  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn,  although  not  much 
used,  are  important  and  sometimes  indispensable.  A  knitter 
is  told  to  start  some  machines  and  having  done  so  is  criticized 
for  not  having  used  a  different  length  of  stitch.  Probably 
neither  he  nor  his  critics  were  at  fault,  but  each  had  been 
brought  up  to  a  different  standard  of  fabric.  Here,  however,  is 
a  standard  based  on  sufficiently  wide  observation  to  make  it 
defensible.  Of  course,  after  the  machines  are  started  and  it  is 
decided  what  kind  of  fabric  is  required  for  the  particular  con- 
ditions, the  stitch  should  be  changed  accordingly,  but  in  the 
absence  of  special  orders  the  knitter  should  have  good  reasons 
for  what  he  does.  Not  only  this  rule  for  the  stitches  per  foot 
but  the  other  rules  as  well,  are  useful  as  a  basis  of  understand- 
ing between  the  knitter  and  his  superior.  It  is  not  essential 
that  either  agrees  to  the  constants  used.  Indeed,  it  is  expected 
that  the  rules  will  be  modified  to  meet  the  local  requirements, 
but  in  their  present  shape  they  mark  a  line  from  which  an 
agreed  departure  may  be  made.  One  cause  of  serious  confusion 
in  the  knitting  business  has  been  this  lack  of  a  common  ground 
for  understanding  between  a  knitter  from  one  section  of  the 


Explanation  of  Formulas  for  Regular  Rib  Fabrics  43 

country  and  a  superintendent  from  another,  so  that  the  knitter 
frequently  had  to  go  back  where  he  came  from. 

Wales  per  Inch.  —  These  are  useful  in  determining  what  the 
fabric  will  look  like,  since  the  fineness  of  fabric  is  considered  to 
be  represented  by  the  wales  per  inch.  The  wales  are  practically 
independent  of  the  stitches  and  of  the  cut. 

Courses  per  Inch.  —  These  depend  on  both  the  diameter  of 
the  yarn  and  on  the  stitches  per  foot,  with  the  result  that 
they  are  not  subject  to  very  close  calculation,  since  a  little 
error  in  the  yarn  diameter  or  in  the  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn 
makes  a  considerable  change  in  the  courses.  However,  it  is 
sometimes  desirable  to  be  able  to  tell  what  number  of  courses 
to  expect. 

Weight  per  Yard.  —  This  is  seldom  used,  except  in  the  piece- 
goods  business,  probably  because  the  means  of  obtaining  it 
have  been  inconvenient.  However,  the  tables  and  rules  given  in 
this  book  remove  much  of  the  difficulty,  so  there  is  now  no  good 
reason  for  not  giving  the  weight  per  yard  the  attention  which 
it  deserves.  It  is  useful  in  determining  how  many  square 
yards  make  up  a  dozen  of  goods,  and  after  that  in  determining 
the  change  in  w^eight  per  dozen  resulting  from  a  change  in  weight 
per  yard.  Regular  rib  fabric  made  of  No.  13  yarn  (38  coils  per 
half  inch)  weighs  about  half  a  pound  to  the  square  yard,  as  the 
equation  shows  (18.987  -^  coils  per  one-half  inch).  Suppose  it  is 
made  into  garments  weighing  7  pounds  to  the  dozen.  Unless 
the  trimming  is  unusually  heavy,  it  may  be  neglected.  Then 
for  the  purposes  of  the  mill,  one  dozen  of  the  goods  contains 
7  0.50  =  14  square  yards  of  fabric.  Now,  suppose  the  mill 
can  buy  at  a  bargain  a  lot  of  yarn  coiling  36  to  the  half  inch, 
about  one  number  heavier;  19  -f-  36  =  0.53,  the  weight  per 
square  yard,  which  multiplied  by  14  equals  7.42,  which  shows 
that  if  this  yarn  is  used  it  will  make  the  goods  nearly  half  a 
pound  per  dozen  heavier,  provided  the  regular  stitch  is  used. 
(Stitches  =  I  Coils  -r-  1.07.)  Many  other  problems  like  this, 
which  should  be  calculated  instead  of  guessed,  may  be  cal- 
culated by  the  use  of  the  simple  rule  for  the  weight  of  regular 
rib  fabrics. 

Production  in  Pounds  per  Ten  Hours  per  Feed.  —  This  is  an 
extremely  useful  formula,  since  the  ordinary  method  of  working 
out  production  is  too  laborious  for  a  busy  knitter,  yet  he  is 
frequently  asked  how  many  pounds  per  day  can  be  produced 


44 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


with  yarn  Uke  a  given  sample.  Divide  14,443  by  the  coils  in 
half  an  inch  squared;  or  divide  14,443  by  the  coils  in  half 
an  inch  and  then  divide  the  quotient  by  them  again.  Suppose 
there  are  30  coils  per  half  inch.  The  square  of  30  is  900. 
The  quotient  of  14,443  ^  900  is  16,  the  pounds  production 
per  feed  per  10  hours  actual  running  time.  The  other  calcu- 
lation is  14,443  -^  30  =  4814,  and  divided  by  30  again,  equals 
16.  There  is  no  allowance  for  lost  time,  but  none  need  be  made 
if  the  user  knows  that  his  machines  are  running  somewhat 
above  the  expected  700  diametral  revolutions  per  minute.  If 
they  are  running  around  770,  a  lost  time  allowance  of  10  per 
cent  is  made  by  increased  speed,  so  16  pounds  per  feed  may 
be  taken  as  final.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  knitter  wants  to 
get  the  production  do^Ti  fine,  he  may  get  the  exact  lost  time 
and  the  exact  diametral  revolutions  and  correct  the  16  pounds 
per  feed  by  the  methods  explained  elsewhere.  To  be  very 
exact  he  should  use  the  production  derived  from  the  number 
of  the  yarn,  Colunm  5,  because  the  number  is  more  reUable  when 
weight  is  concerned,  whereas  the  coils  are  more  reliable  when 
size  is  concerned. 

The  pounds-production  formula  is  a  good  one  to  try  on  skep- 
tics. Almost  every  one  knows  that  rules  are  of  different  degrees 
of  reliabihty.  For  instance,  weather  forecasts  frequently  go 
wrong,  but  the  rule  that  every  one  must  die  is  quite  reliable. 
So  it  is  with  knitting  rules.  The  rule  for  the  number  of  courses 
per  inch  may  go  wide  of  the  mark,  but  the  pounds-production 
rule  is  absolute  (provided  no  mistake  has  been  made  in  its 
derivation).  It  is  amusing,  therefore,  to  hear  some  knitter 
remark,  "  Well,  I  tried  that  production  rule,  and  it  was  wrong, 
just  as  I  thought  it  would  be."  That  is,  the  calculated  and 
actual  results  disagreed,  so  the  natural  conclusion  was  that  the 
rule  must  be  wrong.  But  the  rule  is  absolute,  so  the  assumed 
factors  were  wTong.  In  other  words,  the  experimenter  did  not 
get  the  speed,  the  yarn  number,  the  stitch,  and  the  time  with 
the  accuracy  which  he  expected  of  the  rule,  so  he  jumped  at 
the  conclusion  that  the  rule  was  wrong,  thereby  confessing  his 
own  error.  If  such  mistakes  are  made  in  the  use  of  absolute 
rules,  they  may  also  be  made  in  the  use  of  the  rules  which  are 
admittedly  approximate,  so  that  these  rules  may  be  made  to  ap- 
pear less  reliable  than  they  really  are. 


Explanation  of  Regular  Flat-fabric  Formulas. — Loop-wheel  45 


Square  Yards  Production.  —  This  is  sometimes  called  for,  so  the 
knitter  should  be  prepared  to  give  it,  although  it  is  much  less 
used  than  the  pounds  production. 

Government  contracts  sometimes  specify  tensile  strength.  For 
explanation  of  the  strength  formulas  see  Theory  of  Knit  Fabrics. 

Column  No.  3  gives  the  quantities  just  discussed  in  terms  of 
the  coils  per  inch  for  use  in  calculations,  but  the  knitter  need 
not  trouble  with  these  since  the  coils  per  half  inch  are  more 
convenient  for  him. 

Column  No.  4  is  also  for  theoretical  calculations  more  than 
for  practical  problems. 

Column  No.  5  is  nearly  or  quite  as  necessary  as  Column 
No.  2,  since  the  knitter  should  be  able  to  know  what  he  can  do 
with  yarn  which  he  has  not  seen,  as  well  as  with  yarn  of  which 
he  has  a  sample,  provided,  of  course,  that  the  twist  or  the  ma- 
terial does  not  make  it  unsuitable  for  knitting.  This  colunm 
gives  what  Column  No.  2  does  but  in  terms  of  the  yarn  number. 
The  remarks  already  made  apply  to  this  column,  so  it  is  not 
necessary  to  repeat  them. 

The  other  columns  are  useful  to  the  investigator,  analyst, 
and  designer  more  than  to  the  practical  knitter,  so  he  need  not 
trouble  with  them,  although  in  casually"  reading  them  over  he 
may  see  one  or  more  expressions  adapted  to  his  special  require- 
ments. 

EXPLANATION  OF  REGULAR  FLAT-FABRIC  FORMULAS.— 
LOOP-WHEEL 

These  formulas  are  based  on  the  following: 

Yarn  number  =         ^  ♦ 

40 

Stitches  per  foot  =  3.0983  Gauge. 

Yarn  diameter  =  ^ 

21  VNo. 

Courses  -^  Wales  =  1.25. 

Tensile  strength  of  thread  =  6000  Dia2. 

Diametral  revolutions  per  minute  =  1000  (50  r.p.m.  of  a  20- 
inch  cyl.) 

Fifty  revolutions  per  minute  of  a  20-inch  cylinder  is  lower 
speed  than  is  used  in  many  places,  but  since  wool  work  and  fine 


Formulas.  —  Loop-wheel 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

i  L/OllS 

Uoils 

Dia. 

XT.-. 

L/Ut 

Gauge 

^  Coils 

h  Coils 

Coils 
2 

1 

2  Dia. 

10.5 

2.49  Cut 

1.66  Ga. 

Coils 

2X§  Coils 

Coils 

1 

Dia. 

21  Vn^. 

.  4.98  Cut 

3.32  Ga. 

Dia. 

1 

1 

Dia: 

1 

1 

1 

2X§  Coils 

Coils 

21  VNo. 

4.98  Cut 

3.32  Ga. 

No. 

ih  Coils)2 

Coils2 

1 

No. 

Cut2 

Ga.2 

110.25 

441 

441  Dia.2 

17.78 

40 

Cut 

1  Coils 

Coils 

1 

4.2165 

Cut 

1  Gauge 

2.49 

4.98 

4.98  Dia. 

Gauge 

1  Coils 

Coils 

1 

6.3245  Vn3. 

f  Cut 

Gauge 

1.66 

3.32 

3.32  Dia. 

Stitches 

i  Coils 

Coils 

1 

19.596  VNo. 

4.6475  Cut 

3.0983  Ga. 

.5358 

1.0716 

1.0716  Dia. 

Wales  per 

h  Coils 

Coils 

1 

5.25  Vn3. 

1.245  Cut 

Gauge 

in. 

2 

4 

4  Dia. 

1.2047 

Courses 

i  Coils 

Coils 

1 

6.5625  Vno. 

1.5563  Cut 

1.0375  Ga. 

per  in. 

1.6 

3.2 

3.2  Dia. 

Wt.  per 
sq.  yd. 

9.494 

18.987 

18.987  Dia. 

.904 

3.813 

5.717 

§  Coils 

Coils 

Cut 

Ga. 

Pounds 
per  10  hrs. 
per  feed 

17,755 

71,020 

71,020  X 

161 

2862 

6440 

(i  Coils)2 

Coils2 

Dia.2 

No. 

Cut2 

Ga.2 

Sq.  yds. 
per  10  hrs. 
per  feed 

1869 
§  Coils 

3738 
Coils 

3738  Dia. 

178 
v'n^. 

750.6 
Cut 

1125.9 
Ga. 

Tensile 
strength 
along 
wales, 
pounds 
per  inch 
width,  T 

1500 
J  Coils 

3000 
Coils 

3000  Dia. 

142.86 
V  No. 

602.35 
Cut 

903.6 
Ga. 

Tensile 
strength 

along 
courses, 
pounds  per 
inch 
width,  t 

937.5 
i  Coils 

1875 
Coils 

1875  Dia. 

89.29 
VNo. 

376.7 
Cut 

565 
Ga. 

(46) 


The  quantities  at  the  left  of  the  table 


I  jBgular  Flat  Fabrics 


8 

Stitches 

9 

Wales 
per  in. 

10 

Courses 
per  in. 

11 

Wt.  per 
sq.  yd. 

12 

Pounds 
per  10  hrs 
per  feed 

Sq.  yds. 
per  10  hrs. 
per  feed 

Tensile 
strength 
along 
wales, 
pounds 
per  in. 
width, 
T 

Tensile 
strength 
along 
courses 
pounds 
per  in. 
width,  t 

5358  Stitches 

2  Wales 

1.6  Courses 

9.494 
Wt. 

133.25 
V Pounds 

1869 
Sq.  yds. 

1500 
T 

937.5 
t 

.0716  Stitches 

4  Wales 

3.2  Courses 

18.987 
Wt. 

266.5 
V Pounds 

3738 
Sq.  yds. 

3000 
T 

1875 
t 

1 

1 

1 

Wt. 

v'Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

T 
3000 

t 

1875 

.0716  Stitches 

4  Wales 

3.2  Courses 

18.987 

266.5 

3738 

Stitches^ 
384 

Wales2 

Courses^ 

.81725 

161 

31,684 

20,411 

7970 

<2 

27.56 

43.06 

Wt.2 

Pounds 

(Sq.  yds.)2 

y2 

Stitches 

Wales 

Courses 

3.813 
Wt. 

53.543 

750.6 

602.35 

376.7 
t 

4.6475 

1.245 

1  t^^ftQ 
l.OOOo 

Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

T 

Stitches 

1.2047  X 
Wales 

Courses 

5.717 
Wt. 

80.26 

1125.9 

903.6 

565 
t 

3.0983 

1.0375 

V  Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

T 

Stitches 

3.7325  X 
Wales 

Wale-s 

2.986  X 
Courses 

17.72 
Wt. 

248.7 

3490 

2799.5 
T 

1749.6 

V Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

Stitches 
3.7325 

Courses 
1.25 

4.747 
Wt. 

66.62 

934.5 

750 
T 

468.75 

vPounds 

Sq.  yds. 

t 

Stitches 
2.986 

1.25  X 
Wales 

Courses 

5.94 
Wt. 

83.27 
■^Pounds 

1168.1 
Sq.  yds. 

937.5 
T 

586 
t 

17.72 

4.747 

5.94 

Wt.  sq.  yd. 

^Pounds 

196.85 

T 

t 

98.75 

Stitches 

Wales 

Courses 

14.036 

Sq.  yds. 

157.89 

61.839 

4438 

6935 

197.06  Wt.2 

Pounds 

(Sq.  yds.)2 

127^3 

49.57 

Stitches^ 

Wales2 

Courses^ 

196.9 

3490 

934.5 

1168.1 

196.85  Wt. 

14.032  X 

Sq.  yds. 

1.246  T 

1.99  ^ 

Stitches 

Wales 

Courses 

"v^Pounds 

2799.5 

750 

937.5 

157.89  Wt, 

11.26  X 

^/Pounds 

Sq.  yds. 

T 

1.6  i 

Stitches 

Wales 

Courses 

1.246 

1749.6 

468.75 

586 

98.75  Wt. 

7.038  X 

Sq.  yds. 

T 
1.6 

t 

Stitches 

Wales 

Courses 

VPounds 

1.99 

6  expressed  in  terms  of  those  at  the  top.  (47) 


48 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Thick- 
ness. 

Production  per 
feed,  10  hours, 
1000  diametral  r.p.m. 

Sq.  yds. 

Il 

tmrnMiMMmmmmmmm 

oocooo^^^»^:^co«o•«tl(^^ooocDcoor^•^'--lcxDT}^1--l^^too5lClT-^t^<N 

Wales 
per  in. 

r'^JSS^S;?^'^^^"^"^^     lO  GO  C5  on  CO     00     lor^  00  oo     «o  CO  c  <r> 

i 

per  foot 
of  yarn 

1 

Tjtiftt^OOOsp  —  C~)CO.<*<       lOCCt-       00O5                      C<\CC  »050 
rtrt,-l,-l,-(CS|CSMC^JCN       C^CVIC-I       C^CSI       eCOO       coco       CO       coco  CO 

3 

Yarn 
No. 

igiiiiigiSigisiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 

Coils 
per  in. 

No.  of 
courses. 
h  Coils 
per  in. 

Square 
root  of 
yarn 
No. 

Explanation  of  Regular  Flat-fabric  Formulas. — Loop-wheel  49 

balbriggan  are  made  at  about  that  speed,  and  since  a  compara- 
tively low  speed  has  been  taken  for  latch-needle  rib  machines, 
namely,  700  diametral  revolutions,  the  above  loop-wheel  speed 
is  considered  best  for  use  here.  Of  course,  flat-fieece  machines 
run  much  faster  than  1000  diametral  revolutions,  as  do  low- 
grade  balbriggan  machines,  but  it  has  been  considered  best  to 
compromise  on  this  speed  rather  than  to  use  one  which  would 
not  be  so  general.  If  time  would  allow,  the  best  method  would 
be  to  work  out  a  complete  set  of  formulas  for  each  different  set 
of  established  conditions.  Until  this  is  done,  the  reader  must 
resort  to  modifying  the  conditions  given,  or  to  deriving  his  own 
formulas.  The  latter  is  much  the  better  way,  and  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult since  the  laws  are  very  simple. 

Although  this  set  of  formulas  is  worked  out  especially  for 
loop-wheel  machines  making  fiat  work  out  of  single  cotton  yarn, 
some  of  the  formulas  are  applicable  to  other  machines  which 
conform  to  part  of  the  conditions.  For  instance,  the  latch- 
needle  automatic  hosiery  machine  uses  about  the  same  weight 
of  yarn  as  that  used  by  the  loop- wheel  machine.  Consequently 
the  formulas  for  cut,  stitches,  weight  per  yard,  and  some  others 
apply  to  the  automatic  hosiery  machine,  although  of  course 
the  formula  for  pounds  production  does  not,  neither  does  that 
for  yards  production. 

The  explanation  of  the  rib  formulas  applies  equally  to  the 
flat  formulas,  so  the  reader  is  referred  to  that  explanation  and 
especially  to  that  portion  which  shows  the  importance  of  Col- 
unms  2  and  5. 

YARN-CUT  RULES 
Chart  for  Latch-needle  Rib  Machine 

The  cut  or  number  of  needles  per  inch  is  given  on  the  left, 
the  cotton  number  of  the  yarn  is  given  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
three  curves  give  the  yarn  number  called  for  by  the  yarn  rule, 
number  equals  cut  squared  divided  by  a  constant,  with  con- 
stants respectively  8,  6  and  4,  reading  downward  on  the  chart. 
Consequently  the  heavy-yarn  limit  is  supposed  to  be  repre- 
sented by  the  highest  curve,  the  average  practice  by  the  middle 
curve,  and  the  limit  for  good  fabric  by  the  lower  curve,  although 
it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  really  no  definite  limit  on 
the  fine-yarn  side. 

The  observations  of  actual  practice  are  represented  by  marks, 


50  The  Science  of  Knitting 

as  follows:  cii'cles  stand  for  single  tln-ead,  crosses  stand  for 
double  thread  or  more  than  double  thread  on  coarse  cuts,  and 
crosses  in  squares  stand  for  two-thread  work  where  the  dial  had 
one-third  the  number  of  cuts  that  the  cylinder  had. 

Evidently,  when  the  dial  is  cut  coarser  than  the  cylinder,  the 


8 

-( 

V 

A 

) 

A 

LATCH  NEEDLE  RIB  CHART 
«  Two  th  read  ( or  more,  on  coarse  cuts  1 
o  Single  thread 

/ 

B  Dial  cut  less  than  cylinder  cut 

two  thread 

f 

1  2  *  4  6  6  7 


%  »  10  11  U  i3 14  15  16  17  Id  19  -JO  21 23  24  25  26  27  28  29  30  31  32  3;i  :i4  ;ii  ;i6  32  38  iiS  40  41  42  4;t  44  45  46  41 48 

Yarn,  Cotton  Number 


The  relation  between  the  yam  and  the  cut  for  latch-needle  rib  machines. 
The  cut  is  on  the  left.  The  yarn  number  is  at  the  bottom.  The  curces 
show  the  relations  given  by  the  rules  for  light,  medium,  and  heavy  yarn 
respectively.  The  crosses,  squares,  and  circles  are  from  actual  practice 
irrespective  of  the  rules. 


rib  rule  does  not  hold,  but  the  yarn  may  be  much  heavier.  It 
is  shown  elsewhere  that  when  the  dial  needles  are  removed 
entirely  the  yarn  may  be  still  heavier. 

Three  illustrations  are  evident  of  the  use  of  yarn  much  heavier 
than  the  rule  calls  for,  i.e.,  7  yarn  for  8  cut,  9  yarn  for  9^  cut  and 


Yarn-cut  Rules 


51 


1 1  yarn  for  10  cut.  However,  all  of  these  are  the  single  equiva- 
lents of  two  threads,  and  show  that  it  is  practical  to  run  two 
heavy  threads  where  their  single  equivalent  would  not  run. 
So  the  rule,  Number  =  Cut^  -^  8,  may  be  taken  as  a  reliable 
commercial  guide  for  the  heavj^  limit,  except  on  course  cuts  as 
is  shown  below. 

For  6  cut  and  coarser  it  is  noticeable  that  the  yarn  is  two 
thread.  This  is  partially  due  to  the  practice  where  the  observa- 
tions were  made.  But  in  spite  of  the  use  of  multiple  threads, 
which  favors  heavy  combined  yarn  weight,  still  some  of  the  ob- 
servations of  actual  practice  fall  below  what  any  of  the  rules  call 
for.  This  is  true  of  all  kinds  of  knitting  machines  so  far  investi- 
gated, consequently  the  yarn  must  be  hghter  than  that  called 
for  by  the  rule  for  coarse  cuts,  say  for  5  cut  and  coarser. 


YARN-GAUGE  RULES 
Chart  for  Spring-needle  Loop-wheel  Machine 

This  chart  gives  a  comparison  of  the  yarn  rules  with  actual 
practice,  especially  in  order  to  show  how  much  allowance  should 
be  made  in  using  the  rules. 

The  full  lines  represent  the  rules;  and  the  squares,  circles  and 
crosses  represent  the  actual  practice.  The  square  designates 
two-thread  work  with  a  short  needle;  the  cross,  two-thread 
work  with  an  ordinary  needle;  and  the  circle,  single-thread 
work  with  an  ordinary  needle. 

The  significance  of  the  chart  may  be  understood  from  a 
specimen  yarn  reading,  say,  24  gauge,  which  is  as  follows: 

r-^r^^.+i/^T.  Yarn  (or  single  equivalent 

Condition  two  yar^) 

Heavy  weight  rule   9.6 

Average  rule   14.4 

Light  weight  rule   19.2 

Actual,  two-thread,  short  needle   10,  12,  12.5 

Actual,  two-thread,  ordinary  needle ...  15 

Actual,  single-thread,  ordinary  needle.  .  11.5,  16 

The  following  points  are  important : 

1.  For  10  gauge  and  coarser,  actual  practice  is  to  use  yarn 
lighter  than  the  rule  calls  for,  on  account  of  the  improper 
design  of  coarse-gauge  machines.  Allowance  should  be  made 
for  this  by  using  a  smaller  constant  for  10  gauge  and  under. 


52 


The  Science  of  Kjiitting 


For  instance,  if  average  weight  fabric  is  desired,  such  as  would 
be  represented  in  medium  gauges  by  yarn  equal  to  gauge  squared 
divided  by  40,  then  for  8  and  10  gauge,  di^dde  by  30,  and  for 
finer  gauges,  divide  by  25  or  20,  according  to  the  adaptability  of 
the  machine. 


m 


auge'i  / 


Gauge  - 


n 


-Gnugej  • 


Z2 


SPRING  NEEDLE  LOOP  WHEEL  CHART 
Q  Short  Needle.Two  Thread 
X  Two  Thread 
e  Single  Thread 

J- 


*    1  t  a  4  »  «  «  e  »  10  11 121314  li  le  17  18  19  20  2122  .ii-i*         ;:7  J<i29  30  ;jl  J2  U  M  SiMB  38  SS40  41  i2  M  41  ti46  47«( 

Yarn,  Cotton  Number 

The  relation  between  the  yam  and  the  gauge  for  spring-needle  loop-wheel 
circular  machines.    The  gauge  is  on  the  left.    The  yarn  number  is  at  the  ^ 
bottom.    The  curves  show  the  relations  given  by  the  rules  for  light,  me- 
dium, and  heavy  yam  respectively.    The  crosses,  squares,  and  circles  are 
from  actual  practice  irrespective  of  the  mles. 

s: 
g': 

2.  Yam  equal  to  gauge  squared  divided  by  60  seems  to  repre- 
sent  well  the  practical  heavy  limit.    In  this  comparison  only  n 
one  case  exceeds  it,  which  is  No.  5  yarn  for  18  gauge.    But  this  Ii 
is  the  single  equivalent  of  two  yarns,  and  it  is  for  a  short  needle,  i: 
so  it  is  extreme  for  an  ordinary  needle  and  single  yarn. 


Relation  of  the  Diameter  of  the  Yarn  to  the  Needle  Spacing  53 


3.  The  light  weight  rule,  yarn  equals  gauge  squared  divided 
by  30,  does  not  represent  the  light  limit.  This  should  be  evi- 
dent from  the  fact  that  for  light  yarn  it  is  not  the  diameter  but 
the  strength  which  principally  determines  the  limit.  This  rule 
does  represent  fairly  well  what  is  called  light-yarn-short-stitch 
flat  work  generally  used  for  fine  balbriggans.  Such  fabrics  are 
made  in  both  odd  and  even  gauges.  It  may  be  noticed  that 
the  single-thread  practice  for  gauges  27,  28,  30  and  31,  much  of 
which  is  with  high  grade  balbriggans,  conforms  closely  to  this 
rule. 

Two-thread  work  follows  the  average  rule  or  goes  heavier 
except  for  14  gauge  and  coarser. 

Yam  Rules  for  Different  Machines 


Average 


Circular  spring-needle  rib  No.  = 

Circular  latch-needle  flat  (work)  No.  = 

Straight  jack  sinker  No.  = 

Automatic  hosiery  machines  No.  = 

Circular  spring-needle  loop-wheel  No.  = 

Latch-needle  rib.  .  .   No.  = 


Cut"- 
10 

Cut2 

13 

Gauged  _  Cut^ 
56      "  24.89 
Cut2 
18 

Gauged  Cut2 


40 
Cut2 


17.77 


Approximate 
heavy  limit 


Cut_2 
39 

Gauged  Cut2 
60  26.6 
Cut2 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  DIAMETER  OF  THE  YARN  TO  THE 
NEEDLE  SPACING 

It  should  be  evident  that  the  yarn  can  be  no  wider  than  the 
space  provided  for  it;  and  from  this  consideration,  supported  by 
observation  of  actual  practice,  Gustave  Wilkomm  long  ago 
determined  the  average  relation  of  yarn  width  to  distance  be- 
tween centers  of  needles  to  be  as  1  is  to  7.4  for  flat  fabric. 
This  was  the  introduction  of  science  into  knitting;  consequently, 
the  relation  of  the  size  of  the  yarn  to  the  needle  spacing  is 
historically  the  most  important  knitting  consideration.  But 
although  the  room  for  the  yarn  is  of  interest  and  of  importance. 


54 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


especially  concerning  the  limit  of  the  size  of  the  yarn,  other  im- 
portant factors  should  have  consideration.  A  bridge  designed 
to  carry  only  the  expected  load  would  break  under  an  overload. 
Just  so  a  machine  designed  only  for  normal  yarn  would  "  smash  " 
needles  at  a  bunch  or  knot,  both  of  which  are  frequent  in  com- 
mercial yarn.  On  the  other  hand,  the  yarn  is  generally  flattened 
against  the  needle  during  the  sinking  of  the  stitch,  so  that  it  is 
sometimes  possible  to  feed  yarn  which  otherwise  seems  too  big. 
From  these  considerations  and  from  the  fact  that  manufactur- 
ers differ  in  the  yarn-space  allowance  for  an  equal  distance  be- 
tween centers  of  needles,  owing  to  the  use  of  different-sized 
needles  and  sinkers,  it  is  evident  that  for  general  purposes  a 
more  reliable  basis  of  calculation  is  desirable. 

Clearly,  observation  of  use  is  the  best  means  of  determining 
usage.  A  certain  kind  of  barge  might  be  designed  to  carry  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  load,  but  the  best  means  of  determining  the  capa- 
city of  that  kind  of  barge  would  be  by  comparing  observations 
of  actual  loads  under  different  conditions.  A  load  for  smooth 
water  might  be  about  the  calculated  capacity,  whereas  for 
rough  water  it  might  be  much  less.  The  average  capacity, 
which  is  the  one  desired,  would  be  somewhere  between  the  two 
just  mentioned.  So  with  the  knitting  machine  the  prospective 
user  wants  to  know  what  size  yarn  he  can  safely  run.  Other- 
wise he  might  sell  samples  made  of  a  trial  lot  of  selected  yarn, 
basing  his  knitting  cost  on  the  running  of  that  yarn  and  then  be 
under  the  necessity  of  delivering  the  goods  from  "  bunchy  " 
yarn  with  consequent  extra  cost  for  knitting,  whereas  if  he  had 
known  what  trouble  would  result,  he  could  have  made  his 
samples  with  lighter  yarn  and  so  been  better  prepared  to  stand 
the  overload  due  to  an  unexpected  increase  in  the  proportion  of 
bunches.  Indeed,  there  are  so  many  such  considerations  which 
affect  the  size  of  the  yarn  with  respect  to  the  spacing  of  the 
needles  that  the  only  reliable  means  of  allowing  for  them  is  by 
taking  the  results  of  actual  practice.  The  constants  of  the 
yarn-cut  rules  given  in  this  book  are  so  obtained  and  although 
more  extensive  observation  may  modify  them,  still  they  are 
useful  as  given. 

The  form  of  these  rules  is  yarn  No.  =        ,  in  which  k  is  the 

constant,  equal  to  6  for  latch-needle  rib  machines,  18  for  auto- 
matic hosiery  machines,  etc, 


Relation  of  the  Diameter  of  the  Yarn  to  the  Needle  Spacing  55 


Since  the  formula  contains  the  cut  (which  is  the  reciprocal  of 
the  needle  spacing)  and  the  yarn  number,  it  gives  all  that  is 
needed  except  the  relation  of  the  number  of  the  yarn  to  its 
diameter,  which  is  provided  for  single  cotton  hosiery  yarn  by 

"  441  Dia.2' 

The  relation  of  the  diameter  to  the  cut  can  now  be  derived 
as  follows: 

No.=^f   .  (1) 

N<'-  =  5n>^  (2) 


Cut'  ^  1 

k  -  441 
Cut  1 


(^'-(2)    ^  =  44nP'  (3) 


.  Vr  21Z)' 

D  =   (4) 

21  Cut 

That  is,  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  equals  the  square  root  of  the 
yaru-cut-riile  constant  divided  by  twenty-one  times  the  cut. 
Transforming  (4), 

D  X  Cut  = 

21 

D^^=:^.  (5) 

Cut      21  ^„ 

1  .      .  . 

Now-;^p— is  the  needle  spacing,  i.e.,  in  a  ten-cut  machine  the 

v^Ut 

needles  are  spaced  jV  inch  apart.    Consequently,  D  -r-  is 

the  proportion  of  the  needle  spacing  occupied  by  the  yarn,  which 

proportion  equals       ,  so  that  the  proportion  of  yarn  diameter  to 
21 

needle  spacing  is  the  square  root  oj  the  yarn-cut-rule  constant 
divided  by  21. 
Formula  (4)  for  the  loop-wheel  machine  becomes 

4.98  Cut 

4.98  ^  Cut 
*=  say,  i  X  Needle  Spacing. 


56 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Consequently,  the  yarn-diameter-cut  formula  for  any  machine 
shows  the  proportion  of  needle  spacing  occupied  by  the  yarn 
diameter.  The  following  table  gives  the  above  mentioned  rela- 
tions for  several  types  of  knitting  machine. 


1 

Names  of  machines 

2 

Yarn-cut 
rules 

3 

Square 
root  of 
yarn- 
cut  rule 
con- 
stant 

4 

21 

Vk 

5 

Propor- 
tion of 
needle 
spacing 
occupied 
by  yarn 
diameter 

21 

Cut2  ^  18 

4.2425 

4.948 

.202 

Latch- needle  flat  

Cut2  -7-  13 

3.6055 

5.824 

.17167 

Latch- needle  rib  

Cut2  -f-  6 

2.4495 

8.573 

.11663 

Spring-needle  loop-wheel . . . 

Cut2  H-  17.77 

4.2155 

4.982 

.20072 

Spring-needle  rib  

Cut2  H-  10 

3.1623 

6.640 

. 15059 

Rule  for  flattened  width  \ 

of  tube  same  as  diam- 1 

Cut2  -=-11.17 

3.342 

6.284 

.15913 

eter  of  needle  line.  ) 

Straight  jack-sinker  ma-  ) 
chine  ( 

Cut2-H  24.98 

4.989 

4.209 

.23745 

Rule   for    fabric    same ) 

width    as    length    of  > 

Cut2  -4-27.56 

5.25 

4 

.25 

needle  line  ' 

Rules  are  given  also  for  machines  which  produce  fabric  as 
wide  as  the  machine,  a  rule  for  the  circular  machine  and  a 
rule  for  the  flat  machine.    From  this  it  is  seen  that  for  the 

circular  machine,  yarn  with  diameter        of  the  needle  spacing 

makes  fabric  as  wide  as  the  machine  when  the  tube  is  flattened. 
Consequently,  finer  yam  makes  fabric  narrower  than  the  ma- 
chine and  heavier  yarn  makes  fabric  wider  than  the  machine. 
With  the  straight  jack-sinker  machine  evidently  the  yarn  must 
be  I  of  the  needle  spacing  to  make  fabric  as  wide  as  the  machine, 
since  four  diameters  make  a  wale  and  the  width  of  the  wale 
must  equal  the  needle  spacing  in  order  to  have  the  fabric  as  wide 
as  the  machine  (on  the  needle  line) .  Yarn  according  to  the  aver- 
age rule  is        of  the  needle  spacing,  which  is  very  near  to  \, 


Width  of  Flattened  Tube  of  Fabric  57 


This  diagram  shows  graphically  what  Column  5  shows  numeri- 
cally. 


j  o 

o 

o 

o 

;  LoopW.Flat 

Auto  Hosiery 

Jack  Sinker 

Yarn  which  makes 
Fabric  as  wide  as 
Straight  Machine 

o 

o 

o 

o 

L.N.  Rib 

Spring  N.Rib 

Yam  which  makes  Tube 
as  wide  as  dia.of  Machine 

L.N.  Flat 

The  distance  between  adjacent  lines  represents  the  distance  from  center  to 

center  of  needle  (in  one  set,  for  rib  machines). 
The  circles  show  the  proportional  diameter  of  yarn  used  on  the  machines 

named  under  them. 

When  the  same-sized  yarn  is  used  on  these  different  machines,  the  cut  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  diameters  of  these  circles,  so  the  latch-needle 
rib  machine  requires  the  coarsest  cut. 

WIDTH  OF  FLATTENED  TUBE  OF  FABRIC  FOR  DIF- 
FERENT NUMBERS  OF  NEEDLES  AND  YARN 

As  is  demonstrated  elsewhere,  the  theoretical  width  of  the 
fabric  does  not  depend  directly  on  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
but  on  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  and  on  the  number  of  needles 
in  the  cylinder.  The  actual  width  differs  from  the  theoretical 
width  according  to  the  extent  of  compression  of  the  yarn,  the 
distortion  of  the  stitch,  and  the  inaccuracy  in  determining  the 
yarn  diameter.  Therefore,  allo"wances  must  be  made  accord- 
ing to  these  conditions.  In  order  to  facilitate  making  these 
allowances,  the  numbers  of  needles  used  vary  by  twentieths, 
e.g.,  200,  210,  220,  etc.  Consequently,  if  it  is  desired  to  m-ake 
an  allowance  of  10  per  cent  more  than  the  theoretical  width,  it 
may  be  done  without  calculating  by  reading  the  width  two 
columns  farther  to  the  right  than  the  nearest  number  of  needles. 
If  the  allowance  is  to  be  10  per  cent  less,  the  reading  should  be 
two  columns  to  the  left  of  the  nearest  number  of  needles.  In- 
asmuch as  exact  results  are  not  to  be  expected,  the  division  of 
the  needles  by  twentieths  is  close  enough  for  practical  pur- 


58 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


poses,  since  by  using  the  number  in  the  table  nearest  to  the 
desired  number  the  error  cannot  be  over  2|  per  cent,  which 
is  closer  than  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  can  be  measured. 

It  would  be  desirable  to  have  a  table  from  which  the  width  of 
the  fabric  might  be  read  at  once,  but  this  is  an  impossibility  in 
the  present  state  of  knowledge.  However,  experience  indicates 
that  in  any  one  mill  with  any  one  type  of  machine  and  kind  of 
yarn,  the  variation  from  the  theoretical  width  is  quite  regular, 
say  5  per  cent  or  10  per  cent  over  or  under.  The  variations 
from  the  table  appear  to  be  about  as  follows: 

Small  ribbers  with  a  well-closed  dial  stitch  and  good  take-up 
tension,  10  per  cent  less  than  the  theoretical. 

Rib  body  machines,  without  fabric  ring,  10  per  cent  more 
than  the  theoretical. 

Rib  body  machines,  with  fabric  ring,  same  as  the  theoretical. 

Loop-wheel  flat-work  machines,  10  per  cent  less. 

Automatic  hosiery  machines,  normal  stitch,  same  as  table. 

Small  latch-needle  machine,  flat  work,  very  tight  take-up 
tension,  30  per  cent  less. 

Large  latch-needle  machine,  flat  work,  10  per  cent  less. 

Cardigan  lies  out  wider  than  corresponding  plain  rib  from 
43  per  cent  to  91  per  cent,  average  66  per  cent. 

Tuck  lies  out  wider  than  corresponding  plain  rib  from  42 
per  cent  to  65  per  cent,  average  53  per  cent. 

Consequently,  to  get  the  width  of  either  tuck  or  cardigan, 
determine  the  width  of  the  plain  rib  fabric  according  to  the 
table  and  the  machine  as  given  above,  and  then  add,  say  50 
per  cent  for  tuck,  and  70  per  cent  for  cardigan. 

The  above  suggestions  are  not  to  be  taken  as  final,  since 
much  more  observation  will  be  necessary  for  forming  definite 
conclusions.  Therefore,  whoever  has  frequent  need  of  de- 
termining the  width  of  the  fabric  from  the  yarn  and  the  number 
of  needles  should  derive  his  own  allowances  by  recording  the 
differences  between  the  table  and  the  actual  fabric,  and  then 
using  the  average  difference  for  an  allowance  to  be  applied  to 
the  table.  For  instance,  if  the  average  of  a  number  of  obser- 
vations is  10  per  cent  less  than  the  table,  and  the  extremes  are  5 
per  cent  either  way,  then  the  user  may  count  with  some  certainty 
on  coming  within  5  per  cent  of  the  actual  if  he  discounts  the  table 
by  10  per  cent.  Do  not  depend  on  memory  for  the  determination 
of  the  correction,  for  gross  errors  are  sure  to  result. 


Width  of  Flattened  Tube  of  Fabric 


if 


CO  -u>  'T' 

>^  8 


2  S  ?^  ^  S  ?5  g    ^  ^  ^  ^ 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


2 

CM 

8 

i-i 

8??S§gS^?5gS?SS5^S§§§§SgS2gg§ 

??82  5^2SKS^?52§gJ£8§^i^2§gS?28S 

1-1 

5J?g^g?2§-?52S^8S:5^Si^§8gg§S5E^§S 

1 

c 

 ;  __  

1 

§gS^8§8gS^?5J^SggSi2Sn:S??^i:;:g§S 

C3lCCSlClt--OCOff>JSS50CI>-t--?Oir5-^C*5C<l'— ii— iOC5C50COOt>- 

r^cooi>-^cC''--iocicot^?OiO'^'^ccc^i--'OOCiooooi^i>-o 

2 

2 

8?2Jgg58§^2SS:?^S§^;22S§Ssg?25SfSS^tg 

OO  «j  CN  w  OD        ^  «3  ^  C3  CN  ^  *-H  c;^  ^  ^  aj              ^  if^  ir^  ^  ^  ^  cv 

IP 

Width  of  Flattened  Tube  of  Fabric 


61 


£? 

o 

I 

CO 

f:: 

Needles  ir 

s 

51 

i 

 :r — ~ — — — "~  ~zz — zr.  7^    _  ■    .  ~~ — ~ — — —  r — ~ — —  "  

1 

iO-^«005TOOO'«4'»-<l^»0<MOOOCO-*C'a05t^>OCOi— iO5O0«O»OtJ< 

i 

-<t<'*<«50iOOI:^CCOOOlOCOC^OCX)t^^(M030«D'OeO<M-HO 

i 

Yarn, 
cotton 
No. 

62 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

m 

^?2^;;S&SSg3e^S?3SS222i::22:2""*''**^^" 

i2S2S;5SS5S?3SSS2  2222i::'=°2;22:'*'^"'^=^'=^ 

5S^SS;^53?3?^S22°°2L::*^212;5'^^'^'^'^'=^=^'^ 

§§§2j2j:;^gjes?5S;;SSg2:So^og?5^SS 

;::;;S58J5?2^;^S2  2  22-  —  22-2^222  —  —  - 

??gSS:855lSS2S§^g§2^S^S^g:Sg8g2 

i 

S2^j2^;StgSS:5g§^gS2K25§2S?5geSS§K 
^^?5?3g22i::C::2222S^2222::;:222** 

2S2;j:SS85SS2S?3g58?gSS8S?§^SS 
S?5§:jg2  2J^2222^S2222;:;::^222<=^'=^* 

Yarn, 
cotton 
No. 

Width  of  Fabric  from  Different  Machines  63 


WIDTH  OF  FABRIC  FROM  DIFFERENT  MACHINES 

Consider  a  straight  machine  first.  The  cut  is  the  number  of 
needles  per  inch.    Therefore,  the  distance  from  center  to  center 

of  adjoining  needles  is       •    If  the  wale  is  the  same  width  as  the 

distance  from  center  to  center  of  adjoining  needles,  then  the  fabric 
will  be  just  as  wide  as  the  machine,  i.e.,  just  as  wide  as  the  length 
of  needle  Une  taken  to  produce  it.  But  the  wale  is  as  wide  as 
four  times  the  diameter  of  the  yarn.  Therefore,  the  condition 
for  fabric  as  wide  as  the  machine  is 

4  Dia.  =  7=J—  > 
Cut 

or, 

1 


Dia.  = 


4  Cut 

Consequently  on  a  straight  machine  if  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  is 
equal  to  one  divided  by  four  times  the  cut,  the  fabric  will  be  as  wide 
as  the  needle  line  is  long. 

The  rule  for  the  number  of  yarn  to  make  fabric  as  wide  as 
the  machine  is  derived  as  follows: 

From  above,  Dia.  =  ^        ,  (1) 

but  Dia.  =  \=r-  ■   .    .  (2) 

21  VNo. 

1  1 


-  4  Cut  ~  21  VNo^' 

or  Cut  =  5.25  VNo. 


Squaring  No. 


Cut^ 
27.56' 


Which  is  to  say,  on  a  straight  machine  if  the  number  of  the  yarn 
is  equal  to  the  cut  multiplied  by  itself  and  divided  by  27.56,  the 
fabric  will  be  as  wide  as  the  needle  line  is  long. 

The  same  considerations  apply  to  the  circular  machine,  with 
the  added  one  that  reduction  must  be  made  from  the  circular 
to  the  fiat  shape,  since  the  diameter  of  the  machine  is  used  in- 
stead of  the  circumference  to  express  its  size.  If  the  rule  just 
given  were  followed,  the  fabric  would  lie  out  about  |  as  wide 
as  the  diameter  of  the  machine,  because  it  would  be  half  as  wide 


64  The  Science  of  Knitting 

as  the  distance  around  the  circumference  of  the  machine.  Con- 
sequently, the  yarn  should  be  only  about  two-thirds  of  the 
diameter  which  is  required  by  the  straight  machine. 
That  diameter  is 

(1)  Dia.  =  ^ 


4  Cut 

The  ratio  of  the  circumference  of  the  circle  to  the  diameter  is 
3.1416,  so  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  should  be  multiphed  by 
2 

o  1  in  order  to  make  the  doubled  width  of  the  cloth  the 
3.1416 

same  as  the  diameter  of  the  machine. 

^     X  ^ 


4  Cut     3.1416     6.283  Cut 

Consequently,  on  a  circular  machine  if  the  diameter  of  the  yarn 
equals  one  divided  by  6.283  times  the  cut,  the  width  of  the  flattened 
tube  of  fabric  will  equal  the  diameter  of  the  needle  line. 

But  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  =     ; 

21  VNo. 

therefore,  ^  ^ 


6.283  Cut     21  VNo. 
or  Cut  =  3.342  Vn^. 

Cut2 

^^•  =  it:t7- 


Or,  in  words,  on  a  circular  machine  if  the  number  of  the  yarn  is 
equal  to  the  cut  midtiplied  by  itself  and  divided  by  11.17,  the  width 
of  the  flattened  tube  of  fabric  will  equal  the  diameter  of  the  needle 
line. 

However,  the  size  of  the  yarn  is  generally  determined  by 
more  important  considerations  than  the  width  of  the  fabric, 
such  as  its  adaptability  to  economical  knitting,  the  weight  and 
appearance  of  the  fabric,  etc.,  so  the  rules  based  on  general 
practice  are  the  ones  which  should  be  used  until  other  rules 
are  shown  to  be  as  good.  The  demonstrations  just  given  are 
not  only  useful  for  showing  the  general  relation  of  the  "width  of 
fabric  and  size  of  machine,  but  they  may  be  used  to  calculate 
the  width  when  the  ordinary  yarn  rules  are  known. 


Width  of  Fabric  from  Different  Machines 


66 


The  general  form  of  the  yarn  rule  is 

Cut2 
No.  =  — r-- 

A; 

Extract  the  square  root  of  both  sides  of  the  equation 

Cut 


But  from  (2) 

(3)  -  (4) 


VNo.  = 


1 


21  Dia.  yarn 
Cut 


(3) 
(4) 


21  Dia.  yarn  VA; 

But  it  is  well  known  that  the  width  of  fabric  from  any  one 
kind  of  machine  is  independent  of  the  cut,  since  the  same  width 
of  fabric  is  expected  from  any  one  diameter  regardless  of  the 


Circular  machines 


Rule     Constant  "^Constant 


Width  of  fab- 
ric (double) 

T-  dia.  of 
needle  line 


Hosiery,  automatic  

Latch- needle,  fiat  

Latch- needle,  rib  

Spring- needle,  loop-wheel  

Spring- needle,  rib  

General  rule  for  fabric  same 
width  as  circular  machine 


Cut2 

18 
Cut" 
13 

Cut2 

6 

Cut" 
17.77 
Cut2 
10 
Cut2 
11.17 


18 
13 
6 

17.77 
10 

11.17 


4.2425 
3.6055 
2.4495 
4.2155 
3.1623 
3.42 


1.27^ 
1.08 
.73 
1.26 


Straight  machines 


Straight  jack-sinker . 


General  rule  for  fabric  same 
width  as  flat  machine  , 


Cut2 

24.89 

Cut2 

27.56 


24.89 
27.56 


4.98f 
5.25 


Width  of  fab- 
ric (single) 
^  length  of 
needle  line 


.95 


*  Normal  stitch. 


66 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


cut,  so  the  cut  may  be  regarded  as  constant.  Then  the  equa- 
tion shows  that  the  diameter  of  the  ysLTU.  is  proportional  to 
the  square  root  of  the  yarn-rule  constant.  Consequently-,  the 
width  of  fabric  from  different  machines  is  proportional  to  the 
square  roots  of  their  yarn-rule  constants.  But  we  already'  know 
the  rules  for  fabric  of  the  same  width  as  the  machines;  for  in- 

Cut2 

stance,  for  circular  machines  with  yarn  Xo.  =  ^lyj  fabric 

is  just  as  wide  as  the  machine.  For  latch-needle  rib  machines 
the  regular  constant  is  6.  The  square  root  of  6  is  2.45  and  the 
square  root  of  11.17  is  3.324.  Since  the  square  roots  of  the 
constants  express  the  width  of  the  fabric,  and  since  3.324  rep- 
resents imit  width,  the  width  of  fabric  to  be  expected  from  latch- 
needle  rib  machines  is  as  2.4o  is  to  3.324  or  0.73.  The  table 
on  page  65  shows  this  well  as  the  widths  to  be  expected 
from  other  machines. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  CIRCULAR  KNITTING  MACHINES 

Units  of  Production.  —  The  production  may  be  given  in  com- 
mon units  of  measure,  such  as  pounds,  square  yards,  Linear 
yards,  etc.,  or  in  trade  units,  such  as  dozen  garments,  dozen 
pairs,  etc.;  but  to  use  trade  imits  intelligently  requires  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  poimds  or  yards  in  each  such  unit,  so  for  common 
use  it  is  best  to  give  the  production  in  common  units. 

Pound  is  the  Simplest  Unit.  —  The  pound  is  the  simplest 
unit  since  it  is  the  easiest  to  measure  and  since  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  fabric  do  not  have  to  be  considered. 

Production  Factors.  —  The  production  in  pounds  depends  on 
the  follou-ing  variables:  needle  velocity,  number  of  feeds,  weight 
of  yarn,  length  of  stitch  and  actual  running  time  —  five  in  all. 

Explanation  of  Diametral  Revolutions.  —  Needle  velocity  is 
generally  expressed  as  revolutions  per  minute,  to  which  it  is 
proportional  for  a  given  diameter,  i.e.  if  one  20-inch  machine 
runs  20  r.p.m.  and  another  40  r.p.m.,  the  needle  velocity  of  the 
second  cylinder  is  t^\-ice  that  of  the  first.  But  this  method  of 
expressing  the  velocity  necessitates  stating  the  diameter  in 
every^  case,  so  it  is  better  to  express  the  velocity  in  diametral 
revolutions  per  minute  (dia.  r.p.m.)  which  is  the  product  of  the 
diameter  in  inches  and  the  revolutions  per  minute.  A  20-inch 
machine  running  20  r.p.m.  has  a  needle  velocity  of  20  X  20  = 
400  dia.  r.p.m.     This  is  especially  convenient  for  knitting  ma- 


The  Production  of  Circular  Knitting  Machines 


67 


chines,  in  which  the  needle  velocity  is  generally  constant  for 
different  diameters,  since  it  not  only  facilitates  calculating  the 
production  but  enables  determining  the  speed  of  different- 
sized  machines. 

Diametral-revolutions  Constant    for  Knitting    Machine.  — 

Suppose  a  particular  kind  of  work  is  tried  on  a  20-inch  machine 
and  is  found  to  run  best  at  20  r.p.m.  Then  20  X  20  or  400  is 
the  speed  in  dia.  r.p.m.  for  all  of  the  machines;  according  to 
which  a  10-inch  should  run  400  ^  10  =  40  r.p.m.,  and  a  16-inch, 
400  -r-  16  =  25  r.p.m.  For  these  and  other  reasons  the  needle 
velocity  is  expressed  in  dia.  r.p.m.  and  700  is  taken  as  a  fair 
average  for  rib  work,  except  automatic  work  on  small  machines 
for  which  420  is  taken. 

Conditions  for  High  Velocity.  —  Generally,  good  conditions  of 
yarn,  machine  and  attendance  favor  good  needle  velocity  and 
vice  versa.  Light  yarn  and  a  fairly  loose  stitch  favor  good 
velocity,  since  bunches  and  knots  have  room  to  pass  between 
'the  needles  without  causing  trouble.  Each  manufacturer 
should  determine  for  himself  the  best  speed  for  his  conditions. 

Advisable  to  Start  Low.  —  It  is  advisable  to  start  low  and  then 
gradually  work  up  to  the  point  where  the  cost  of  knitting  per 
unit  of  production  is  the  least. 

Maximum  Number  of  Feeds  Generally  Used.  —  The  number 
of  feeds  is  generally  the  greatest  that  can  be  used  on  the  machine 
or  for  the  pattern  required. 

Selection  of  Yam  Number.  —  The  weight  of  yarn  is  limited 
to  an  extent  by  the  cut  and  after  that  by  the  weight  of  the  goods, 
the  cost  of  the  goods,  etc.  Since  cotton  is  the  most  used  knitting 
material,  the  number  of  the  yarn  is  generally  given  in  the  cotton 
count. 

Number  of  Yam  Proportional  to  Square  of  Cut.  —  The  number 
of  the  yarn  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  cut  or  gauge,  i.e. 
if  the  cut  is  made  twice  as  fine,  the  yarn  number  should  be  four 
times  as  fine. 

Possible  Variation  of  Yam.  For  latch-needle  rib  machines  the 
variation  in  the  yarn  number  for  a  given  cut  is  generally  not  over 
twice  the  heaviest.  In  other  words,  if  No.  8  is  about  as  heavy 
as  is  practical,  No.  16  would  be  about  the  light  limit.  It  is  of 
course  understood  that  the  extreme  light  limit  is  the  lightest 
thread  that  will  hold  together  during  the  formation  of  the  stitch, 
but  the  fabric  so  made  would  be  worthless. 


68 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


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The  Production  of  Cii'cular  Knitting  Machines 


69 


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70 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Stitches  per  Foot  of  Yarn  and  Courses  per  Inch.  —  The  length 
of  stitch  is  best  expressed  by  the  number  of  cyhnder  needles  per 
one  foot  of  yarn.  The  number  of  courses  per  inch  is  frequently 
used,  but  the  production  in  pounds  cannot  be  calculated  from 
the  courses  because  it  is  not  known  how  much  yarn  is  required 
to  make  a  given  number  of  courses.  One  foot  of  yarn  takes  up 
from  3  inches  to  5  inches  of  needles  in  a  latch-needle  rib  machine. 

For  cuts  from  Nos.  4  to  14  inclusive  and  yarn  =        ,  one  foot 

of  yarn  fills  about  4  inches  of  needles  for  a  good  fabric,  so  4 
inches  is  taken  as  the  average.  When  the  yarn  is  lightened,  the 
stitch  is  generally  tightened  and  vice  versa. 

Causes  of  Lost  Time.  —  The  running  time  of  course  depends  on 
the  number  of  hours  in  the  working  day,  on  the  conditions  of  yarn, 
attendance,  and  machine,  whether  stop  motions  are  used,  etc. 
Generally,  the  greater  the  number  of  feeds,  the  greater  will  be 
the  stoppage  from  yarn  defects  and  for  replacement  of  bobbins  or 
cones.    Estimates  of  stoppage  run  from  10  per  cent  to  20  per  cent. 

Factors  of  Linear  Yard  Production.  —  The  production  in 
linear  yards  is  dependent  on  the  speed,  feeds,  and  courses  per 
inch.  It  is  obtained  by  calculating  the  number  of  courses 
made  per  day  by  the  machine  and  then  dividing  this  number  by 
the  number  of  courses  in  a  yard  of  the  fabric. 

The  production  in  hanks  is  found  by  calculating  the  number 
of  yards  of  yarn  used  by  the  machine  per  day,  dividing  it  by  the 
number  of  yards  in  a  hank,  and  dividing  the  result  by  the  num- 
ber of  the  yarn. 

The  production  in  square  yards  is  equal  to  the  number  of 
stitches  made  per  unit  of  time  divided  by  the  number  of  stitches 
per  square  yard;  but  since  the  latter  is  inconvenient  to  get,  the 
stitches  per  square  inch  are  used  and  multiplied  by  36  X  36  = 
1296,  the  number  of  square  inches  in  a  square  yard. 

Explanation  of  General  Rib-fabric  Production  Table  in  Pounds 

Page"  72 

This  table  gives  the  production  in  pounds  for  10  hours  actual 
running  time  for  all  factors  variable  except  stitches,  which  are 
taken  at  9.8  VNo.,  that  is,  one  foot  of  yarn  occupies  four  inches 
of  needles. 

To  use  the  table  multiply  together  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
in  inches,  the  revolutions  per  minute  and  the  feeds:  select  the 


Production 


71 


number  at  the  top  of  the  table  nearest  to  this  product  and  read 
the  answer  under  it  opposite  the  number  of  the  yarn  used. 

Example.  —  How  many  pounds  of  fabric  will  be  produced 
in  ten  hours  under  the  following  conditions? 

Diameter  of  cylinder  16  inches, 
Revolutions  per  minute  44, 
Feeds  8, 

Yam  No.  11  cotton, 

Multiply  together  the  diameter,  the  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  the  feeds 

16  X  44  X  8  =  5,632. 

See  the  table  on  page  72 

The  nearest  number  at  the  top  of  the  table  is  5,400,  and  under 
it,  opposite  No.  11  yarn  is  91.75.  Discount  this,  say  20  per 
cent  for  lost  time,  which  gives  73.4  pounds. 

The  average  production  of  spring-needle  circular  loop-wheel 
flat  work  is  1.23  times  that  given  in  the  table.  For  instance, 
such  a  machine  under  the  above  conditions  would,  in  10  hours 
actual  time,  produce  91.75  X  1.23  =  113  pounds. 


Production  Table  in  Hanks  for  Rib  Machine  —  Example 

Page  73 

How  many  pounds  of  fabric  will  be  produced  in  a  10-hour 
day  by  a  6-feed,  18-inch  machine  running  50  r.p.m.  and  using 
No.  10  cotton  yarn.  The  diametral  revolutions  are  18  X  50  = 
900.  The  constant  for  900  dia.  r.p.m.  and  6  feeds  is  908.75, 
which  divided  by  10,  the  yarn  number,  =91,  the  pounds  pro- 
duction for  9  hours,  which  under  good  conditions  may  be  taken 
as  the  production  for  a  10-hour  day. 

If  the  yarn  is  two  thread  get  either  (1)  the  production  for  the 
equivalent  single-thread  or  (2)  the  total  of  the  productions  for 
each  thread.  For  instance,  what  is  the  pounds  production  per 
10-hour  day  of  a  4-feed  machine  making  700  diametral  revo- 
lutions per  minute  and  using  a  No.  8  yarn  and  a  No.  24  yarn  at 
each  feed. 

(1)  The  equivalent  single  yarn  is       ^  f  =        =  6.  The 

constant  for  700  diametral  r.p.m.  and  4  feeds  is  471,2,  which 
divided  by  6  =  78.6,  the  pounds  production. 


72 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


(2)  The  production  for  each  thread  is 
471.2  ^8  =59 
471.2     24  =  19^ 

78.6.    Total  production. 

General  Rib-fabric  Production  Table  in  Pounds 

For  explanation  see  pages  70  and  71 


Production.    Pounds  of  rib  fabric  per  10  hours  actual  running  time 


Yarn 

Diameter  X  r.p.m.  X  Feeds 

iMO. 

500 

1200 

1900 

2600 

3300 

4000 

4700 

5400 

6100 

6800 

7500 

5 

18.69 

44.86 

71.03 

97.2 

123.35 

149.52 

175.7 

201. 

85 

228.00 

254.20 

280.35 

6 

15.58 

37.38 

59.19 

81.00 

102.80 

124.60 

146.4 

168. 

22 

190.00 

211,8 

3 

233.65 

7 

13.35 

32.05 

50.74 

69.43 

88.12 

106.80 

125.5 

144. 

20 

162.  t 

)0 

181.60 

200,30 

8 

11.68 

28.04 

44.39 

60.75 

77.10 

93.46 

109.8 

126. 

16 

142.52 

158,8 

175.23 

9 

10.32 

24.76 

39.20 

53.64 

68.08 

82.52 

9e 

.97 

111. 

40 

125.95 

140,30 

154.73 

1ft 

J.U 

9.35 

22.43 

35.52 

48.60 

61.68 

74.76 

87.85 

100. 

94 

114.00 

127.10 

140.19 

11 

8.50 

20.39 

32.29 

44.18 

56.07 

67.97 

79.86 

91. 

75 

103.65 

115,54 

127.43 

12 

7.79 

18.69 

29.60 

40.50 

51.40 

62.30 

73.21 

84. 

11 

95.02 

105.90 

116.80 

13 

7.19 

17.25 

27.32 

37.38 

47.45 

57.51 

67.58 

77. 

64 

87.70 

97.77 

107.95 

14 

6.68 

16.02 

25.37 

34.72 

44.06 

53.40 

62.75 

72. 

10 

81.44 

90.78 

100.13 

15 

6  23 

14.95 

23.68 

32.40 

41.12 

9.84 

58.57 

67. 

29 

76.01 

84.73 

93.46 

16 

5.84 

14.02 

22.20 

30.38 

38.55 

46.73 

54.91 

63. 

08 

71.26 

79.44 

87.85 

17 

5.50 

13.20 

20.89 

28.59 

36.28 

43.98 

51.68 

59. 

37 

67.07 

74.76 

82.46 

18 

5.19 

12.46 

19.73 

27.00 

34.27 

41.54 

48.81 

56. 

07 

63.34 

70.61 

77.89 

19 

4.92 

11.80 

18.69 

25.58 

32.47 

39.35 

4e 

.24 

53. 

12 

60  00 

66.90 

73.78 

20 

4.67 

11.21 

17.75 

24.30 

30.84 

37.38 

43.92 

50. 

46 

57.00 

63.55 

70.09 

21 

4.45 

10.68 

16.91 

23.14 

29.37 

35.60 

41 

.83 

48. 

06 

54.29 

60.52 

66.75 

22 

4.25 

10.20 

16.14 

22.09 

28.04 

33.98 

39.93 

45. 

88 

51.82 

57.77 

63.72 

■  ■■ 
Yarn 

No. 

8200 

8900 

9600 

10,300 

11,000 

11,700 

12,400 

13,100 

13.800 

14,500 

5 

306 . 50 

910  7r\ 
66Z .  /I) 

■JKC  on 

385.00 

411.20 

437 

40 

46 

J. 50 

4{ 

?9.70 

515.90 

542.10 

6 

255.45 

277.25 

299.05 

320.85 

342.70 

364 

50 

38 

J.  30 

408.10 

429.90 

451.70 

7 

219.00 

237.65 

256.35 

275.05 

293.75 

312 

45 

331.15 

349.85 

308.55 

387.20 

8 

191.60 

207.95 

224.30 

240.65 

257.00 

273 

40 

289.70 

306.10 

322.40 

338.80 

9 

169.16 

183.60 

198.05 

212,50 

226.95 

241 

40 

255.85 

270.27 

284.70 

299.15 

10 

153.26 

166.35 

179.43 

192.51 

205. 

30 

218 

70 

231.80 

244.85 

257.95 

271.05 

11 

139.33 

151.22 

163.12 

175.00 

186.90 

198 

80 

210.70 

222.60 

234.50 

246.40 

12 

127.70 

138.60 

149.50 

160.40 

171.35 

182 

50 

193.15 

204.05 

215.00 

225,95 

13 

117.90 

127.95 

138.00 

186.90 

158.15 

168 

23 

178.30 

188.35 

198.40 

208,50 

14 

109.47 

118.80 

128.15 

137.50 

146  85 

156 

20 

165.55 

174.90 

184.25 

193.60 

15 

102.17 

110.90 

119.60 

128.34 

137,07 

145 

80 

154.52 

163.25 

171.96 

180.70 

16 

95.80 

103.97 

112.15 

120.32 

128.50 

136 

70 

144.86 

153.04 

161.22 

169.40 

17 

90.16 

97.86 

105.55 

113.24 

120,95 

128 

64 

136.34 

144.04 

151.73 

159.43 

18- 

85.16 

92.42 

99.70 

106.95 

114.23 

121 

50 

128.77 

136.05 

143.30 

150.58 

19 

80.67 

87.56 

94.44 

101.33 

108.22 

115 

10 

122.00 

128.87 

135.76 

142.65 

20 

76.63 

83.17 

89.71 

96.25 

102. 

^0 

109 

34 

115.88 

122,42 

128.96 

136.50 

21 

72.98 

79.21 

85.44 

91.67 

97. 

)1 

104 

13 

110.36 

115.80 

116.40 

129.05 

22 

69.66 

75  62 

81.56 

87.51 

93. 

16 

99 

41 

105.35 

111.30 

117.25 

123.20 

Production 


73 


Production  Table  in  Hanks  for  Rib  Machine 
For  example  see  bottom  of  page  71 


Constants  which  dividedby  the  cotton  number  of  the  yarn  give  the  production 
of  latch-needle  circular  rib  knitting  machines  in  pounds  per  9  hours  actual  time. 
The  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  are  four  times  the  cut. 


R.p.m. 
(20  in.) 

Dia. 
r.p.m. 

Feeds 

1 

2 

3 

4 

20 

400 

67.31 

134 . 63 

201 . 95 

269 . 27 

25 

500 

84.14 

168.30 

252 . 43 

336 . 60 

30 

600 

100.97 

201.95 

302.93 

403.90 

35 

700 

117.80 

235.61 

353.42 

471.20 

40 

800 

134.63 

269.27 

403 . 90 

538 . 53 

45 

900 

151.46 

302.92 

454 . 38 

605 . 85 

50 

1000 

168.29 

336.59 

504.88 

673.17 

5 

6 

7 

8 

20 

400 

336.60 

403.90 

471.20 

538 . 55 

25 

500 

420.73 

504.90 

589.00 

673 . 20 

30 

600 

504.90 

605.85 

706.80 

807.80 

35 

700 

589.00 

706.80 

824  65 

942.40 

40 

800 

673 . 15 

807.80 

942.40 

1077.00 

45 

900 

757.30 

908.75 

1060.20 

1211.60 

50 

1000 

841.45 

1009.70 

1178.00 

1346.30 

9 

10 

11 

12 

20 

400 

605.90 

673.15 

740.50 

807.80 

25 

500 

757.30 

841.45 

925 . 60 

1009 . 70 

30 

600 

908.77 

1009.70 

1110.70 

1211.70 

35 

700 

1 non  OA 

1178.00 

1296.00 

1413.60 

40 

800 

1211.60 

1346.30 

1481.00 

1615  60 

45 

900 

1363.10 

1514.60 

1666.00 

1817.50 

50 

1000 

1514.50 

1682.90 

1851.20 

2019.50 

13 

14 

15 

16 

20 

400 

875.20 

942.50 

1009.70 

1077.00 

25 

500 

1094.00 

1178.00 

1262.00 

1346.30 

30 

600 

1312.70 

1413.70 

1514.60 

1615.60 

35 

700 

1531.40 

1649.30 

1767.00 

1885.00 

40 

800 

1750.30 

1885.00 

2019.50 

2154.00 

45 

900 

1969.00 

2120.50 

2272.00 

2423.40 

50 

1000 

2187.90 

2356.10 

2524.30 

2692.70 

1 

Cut 

Yarn 

Cut 

Yarn 

3 

1.5 

9 

13.5 

4 

2.7 

10 

16.7 

5 

4.2 

11 

20.2 

6 

6.0 

12 

24.0 

7 

8.2 

13 

28.2 

8 

10.8 

14 

32.7 

74 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Production  Table  in  Hanks  for  Loop-wheel  Machine 

Constants  which  divided  by  the  cotton  number  of  the  yarn  give  the  produc- 
tion of  spring-needle  circular  loop-wheel  knitting  machines  in  pounds  per  ten 
hours  actual  time.    The  stitches  per  foot  are  three  times  the  gauge. 


R.p.m. 

Dia. 

Feeds 

(20  in. 
cyl.) 

r.p.m. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

70 

1400 

223 

447 

670 

893 

1115 

1337 

1560 

1783 

2000 

2230 

60 

1200 

193 

383 

575 

765 

965 

1145 

1340 

1530 

1720 

1920 

50 

1000 

160 

320 

480 

640 

800 

960 

1115 

1275 

1435 

1600 

40 

800 

128 

256 

384 

510 

640 

766 

894 

1020 

1148 

1280 

30 

600 

97 

192 

290 

385 

480 

575 

670 

767 

860 

960 

20 

400 

65 

129 

193 

255 

325 

385 

450 

510 

575 

640 

10 

200 

32 

64 

95 

128 

160 

194 

224 

255 

290 

320 

Example.  —  What  is  the  production  in  pounds  per  day  of  a 
6-feed  spring-needle  circular  loop-wheel  machine  15  inches  in 
diameter,  running  60  revolutions  per  minute  and  knitting 
No.  10  cotton  yarn? 

The  diametral  revolutions  per  minute  are  15  X  60  =  900. 
The  table  does  not  give  this,  but  does  give  800  and  1,000,  and 
since  what  is  desired  is  halfway  between  these,  take  half  of  the 
hanks  given  under  6  feeds  and  opposite  800  and  1,000.  That  is, 
half  of  960  +  766  =  I  X  1726  =  863.  This  number  of  hanks, 
863,  divided  by  the  yarn.  No.  10,  gives  86.3,  the  pounds  pro- 
duction for  10  hours  actual  running  time.  Discount  this  by 
the  proportion  of  lost  time,  or  by  one-tenth,  if  the  lost  time  is 
not  known.  The  actual  production  then  for  good  conditions 
is  86.3  X  0.9  =  77.7. 

For  two-thread  work  see  two-thread  example  for  rib-produc- 
tion table  in  hanks,  bottom  of  page  71  and  top  of  page  72. 

For  fleeced-underwear  fabric  obtain  the  face  production  by 
either  two-thread  method,  pages  71  and  72,  and  double  it  to  allow 
for  the  weight  of  the  backing. 

Production  Table  Linear  Yards  —  Explanation 

Pages  76  and  77 

If  the  number  of  courses  of  fabric  made  in  an  hour  is  known 
and  this  number  is  divided  by  the  courses  per  yard,  the  quotient 
will  be  the  linear  yards  produced  per  hour.  Since  the  number 
of  courses  per  inch  depends  both  on  the  diameter  of  the  yam 
and  on  the  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn,  as  well  as  on  other  con- 


Production 


75 


ditions,  a  table  to  meet  all  of  the  requirements  would  be  both 
bulky  and  costly.  However,  the  courses  produced  by  the 
machine  may  be  easily  calculated,  and  if  the  courses  per  inch 
are  counted  in  the  sample  in  question,  if  at  hand,  or  taken  from 
the  guide  table  herewith,  and  divided  into  the  courses  produced 
by  the  machine,  the  linear  yards  may  be  obtained  satisfactorily 
from  a  comparatively  small  table,  such  as  the  one  on  page  76. 
The  table  is  based  on  the  following  calculations: 

The  courses  per  hour  =  r.p.m.  X  feeds  X  60    .  (1). 
The  courses  per  linear  yard  =  courses  per  inch  X  36  .  (2). 
The  linear  yards  per  hour  =  (1)  ^  (2) 

_  r.p.m.  X  feeds  X  60 
36  X  courses  per  inch 
-  ^  1.667  X  r.p.m.  X  feeds 
courses  per  inch 
_  constant 
courses  per  inch 
The  table  shows  the  constants  for  different  revolutions  per 
minute  of  circular  machines  or  strokes  per  minute  of  straight 
machines  and  for  different  numbers  of  feeds.    The  constants 
must  be  divided  by  the  courses  per  inch  to  get  the  linear  yards. 
Since  the  production  in  linear  yards  is  independent  of  the  diam- 
eter of  the  machine,  except  as  it  affects  the  revolutions  per 
i  minute,  the  diameters  are  given  merely  as  an  alternative  guide 
for  use  for  latch-needle  machines  when  the  revolutions  per 
minute  are  not  known.    Deduction  should  be  made  from  the 
result  obtained,  in  proportion  to  the  time  lost. 

Production,  Linear  Yards 

Pages  76  and  77 

Example.  —  How  many  linear  yards,  per  10-hour  day,  of  fabric 
'  having  24  courses  per  inch,  will  be  produced  by  a  4-feed  machine 
running  100  r.p.m.?  In  the  table  opposite  100  r.p.m.  and  under 
4  feeds  is  the  constant  667,  which  divided  by  24,  the  number 
of  courses,  gives  27.8,  the  linear  yards  per  hour,  actual  time. 
Since  the  machine  has  only  four  feeds,  the  lost  time  may  be 
considered  10  per  cent  in  the  absence  of  definite  information. 
Then  the  day  will  consist  of  9  hours  actual  running  time, 
so  the  actual  production  in  linear  yards  per  day  will  be 
27.8  X  9  =  250. 


76 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Production,  Linear  Yards 

For  explanation  see  bottom  of  page  74 


Constants  which  divided  by  the  number  of  courses  per  inch  give  the  production 
of  knitting  machines  in  linear  yards  per  hour. 


Dia. 

R.p.m.  of 

circular 
machine. 
Strokes 
per  min.  of 
straight 
machine 

Feeds 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

1 

700 

1167.0 

2333.0 

u 

564 

940.0 

1880 . 0 

462 

770.0 

1540 . 0 

2310. 

U 

400 

666.7 

1333.0 

2000. 

2 

350 

583.3 

1167.0 

1750. 

2i 

311 

518.3 

1037.0 

1555. 

21 

280 

466.7 

933.3 

1400. 

21 

255 

425.0 

850.1 

1275. 

3 

233 

388.3 

776.7 

1165. 

3i 

215 

358.3 

716.7 

1075. 

200 

333.3 

666.7 

1000. 

1333 . 

31 

187 

311.7 

623.4 

935. 

1247. 

4 

175 

291.7 

583.3 

875. 

1167. 

4i 

165 

275.0 

550.0 

825. 

1100. 

1375. 

ih 

156 

260.0 

520.0 

780. 

1040. 

1300. 

41 

147 

245.0 

490.0 

735. 

980. 

1225. 

5 

140 

233.3 

466.7 

700. 

933. 

1167. 

5i 

133 

221.6 

443.3 

665. 

887. 

1108. 

1333. 

1552. 

5i 

127 

211.7 

423.3 

635. 

847. 

1058. 

1270. 

1482. 

51 

122 

203.3 

406.7 

610. 

813. 

1017. 

1220. 

1423. 

6 

117 

195.0 

390.0 

585. 

780. 

975. 

1170. 

1365. 

7 

100 

166.7 

333.3 

500^ 

667" 

833. 

1000. 

1167. 

8 

88 

146.7 

293.3 

440. 

587. 

733. 

880. 

1027. 

9 

78 

130  0 

260.0 

390. 

520. 

650. 

780. 

910. 

10 

70 

116.7 

233.3 

350. 

467. 

583. 

700. 

817. 

11 

64 

106.7 

213.3 

320. 

'427. 

533. 

640. 

747. 

12 

58 

96.7 

193.3 

290. 

387 

483. 

619. 

677. 

13 

54 

90.0 

180.0 

270. 

360. 

450. 

540. 

630. 

14 

50 

83  3 

166.7 

250. 

338. 

417. 

500. 

583. 

15 

47 

78.3 

156.7 

235. 

313. 

392. 

470. 

548. 

16 

44 

73.3 

146.7 

220. 

293. 

367. 

440. 

513. 

17 

41 

68.3 

136.7 

205. 

273. 

342. 

410. 

478. 

18 

39 

65.0 

130.0 

195. 

260. 

325. 

390. 

455. 

19 

37 

61.7 

123.3 

185. 

247. 

308. 

370. 

431. 

20 

35 

58.3 

116.7 

175. 

233. 

292. 

351. 

408. 

21 

33 

55.0 

110  0 

165 

220. 

275. 

330. 

385. 

22 

32 

53.3 

106.7 

160. 

213. 

267. 

320. 

373. 

23 

30 

50.0 

100.0 

150. 

200. 

250. 

300. 

350. 

24 

29 

48.3 

96.7 

145. 

193. 

242. 

290. 

338. 

Production,  Linear  Yards 


77 


If  the  number  of  courses  is  not  known,  but  the  cut  is  known, 
then  from  the  guide  table  take  the  number  of  courses  opposite 
the  cut. 

Excepting  the  diameter  column  and  the  cut  table  the  figures 
apply  to  any  knitting  machine,  either  circular  or  straight. 


R.p.m.  of 

circular 

Feeds 

machine. 

Dia. 

Strokes 
per  min.  of 

straight 
machine 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

1 

700 

U 

564 

H 

ARO 

1  3 

ACV\ 

Guide  table 

2 

oou 

Cut  Coxirses 

2i 

311 

6 

16 

2? 

7 

19 

21 

255 

8 

21 

3 

Zoo 

9 

24 

3i 

215 

10 

27 

33 

11 

29 

q3 

OS 

187 
10/ 

12 

32 

4 

1  7K 
1/0 

13 

35 

/(I 

1  AK 

loo 

14 

38 

A  1 

1  KR 
100 

A  3 

147 
1*/ 

5 

5i 

133 

5i 

127 

5f 
6 

1  00 

117 

1500. 

7 
8 

•100 

88 

1333. 
1173. 

1500. 
1320. 

1467, 

9 

78 

1040. 

1170. 

1300. 

1430, 

10 

70 

933. 

1050. 

1167. 

1283, 

1400. 

11 

64 

853. 

960. 

1067. 

1173. 

1280. 

1387. 

12 

58 

773. 

870. 

967. 

1063. 

1160. 

1257 

1353. 

13 

54 

7'>n 
/  . 

810 

yyu . 

inc/1 
JUoU . 

1 1 7n 
1 1  /u . 

1350. 

14 

50 

667. 

750. 

833. 

917. 

1000. 

1083. 

1167. 

1250. 

1330. 

15 

47 

627. 

705. 

783. 

862. 

940. 

1018. 

1097. 

1175. 

1253. 

16 

44 

587. 

660. 

733. 

807. 

880. 

953. 

1027. 

1100. 

1173. 

17 

41 

547. 

615. 

683. 

752. 

820. 

888. 

957. 

1025. 

1093. 

18 

39 

520. 

585. 

650. 

715. 

780. 

845. 

910. 

975. 

1040. 

19 

37 

493. 

555. 

616, 

678. 

740. 

802. 

863. 

925. 

987. 

20 

35 

467. 

525. 

583. 

642. 

700. 

758. 

817. 

875. 

933. 

21 

33 

440. 

495. 

550. 

605. 

660. 

715. 

770. 

825. 

880. 

22 

32 

427. 

480. 

533. 

587. 

640. 

693. 

747. 

800. 

853. 

23 

30 

400. 

450. 

500. 

550. 

600. 

650. 

700. 

750. 

800. 

24 

29 

387. 

435. 

483. 

532. 

580. 

628. 

677. 

725. 

773. 

78 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


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Production  Table,  Square  Yards,  Wales  and  Courses  Known  79 


li 

it 

HI 

!i 

^  i  ii 

lint 

iti 
I'll 

Mi 


1 

iiiiiiilliiili 

sssiiliiiilill 

iHiiHiiiiiii 

3,971 
5,294 
6,618 
7,941 
9,265 
10,590 
11,910 
13,240 
14,560 
15,880 
17,210 
18,530 
19,850 
21,180 

22 

iSHisfiiiiiii 

;^ 

3,360 
4,480 
5,600 
6,720 
7,840 
8,960 
10,080 
11,200 
12,320 
13,440 
14,560 
15,680 
16,800 
17,920 

2 

3,054 
4,072 
5,091 
6,109 
7,126 
8,145 
9,163 
10,180 
11,200 
12,220 
13,240 
14,250 
15,270 
16,290 

2,749 
3,665 
4,581 
5,498 
6,414 
7,330 
8,246 
9,163 
10,080 
11,000 
11,910 
12,830 
13,740 
14,660 

illlSllliilill 

IliilllBliiill 

liiiiliiiiiiii 

iiiiiiiiiiiiii 

liiiiliiiiiiii 

mmmmmm 

CO 

mmmimm 

305.433 
407.244 
509.055 
610.866 
712.677 
814.488 
916.299 
1018.110 
1119.920 
1221.730 
1323.540 
1425.356 
1527.160 
1628.976 

80 


The  Science  of  Ivnitting 


Example.  —  How  many  square  yards  per  hour  will  be  produced 
by  an  8  cut  machine  with  10  feeds  making  fabric  with  17  wales 
and  22  courses  per  inch?  The  stitches  per  square  inch  are  17  X 
22  =  374.  The  constant  in  the  table  on  page  79  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  8  cut  and  10  feeds  is  8145,  which  divided  by  374  =  21.8, 
the  square  yards  per  hour,  no  lost  time. 

Explanation  of  Square  Yard  Table  for  Use  when  the  Number  of 
Cylinder  Needles,  Revolutions  per  Minute  and  Feeds  are 
Known,  Page  8i 

This  table  is  designed  to  give  in  compact  form  the  production 
in  square  yards  for  varying  conditions  of  speed,  feeds,  needles, 
and  yam.  The  only  condition  which  is  fixed  is  the  stitch 
which  is  taken  at  9.8  ^/'So.  per  one  foot  of  yarn  for  rib  fabric 
and  19.6  VNo.  for  flat  fabric. 

To  use  the  table,  multiply  together  the  number  of  needles  in 
the  cylinder,  the  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  feeds.  Select 
the  number  at  the  top  nearest  to  this  product  and  run  do^Ti  the 
column  until  opposite  the  yarn  used,  where  will  be  found  the 
square  yards  for  10  hours'  actual  running  time.  Discount  this 
for  the  lost  time,  say  20  per  cent  for  a  rib  body  machine  antl 
10  per  cent  for  a  ribber  or  flat-work  machine  if  the  lost  time  is 
not  kno\\Ti. 

Example.  —  How  many  square  yards  will  be  produced  in  ten 
hours  under  the  following  conditions? 

Needles  in  cylinder,  400(8  cut,  16  inches). 
Revolutions  per  minute,  44. 
Feeds,  8. 

Yarn,  Xo.  11  cotton. 

(The  stitch  used  is  32.5  for  rib  fabric  or  65  for  flat  fabric.) 
Multiply  together. 

The  needles,  the  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  feeds; 

400  X  44  X  8  =  140,800. 

The  nearest  number  to  this  at  the  top  of  the  table  is  150,000, 
under  which,  opposite  No.  11  yarn  is  183.3.    If  a  closer  result  is 

desired,  multiply  183.3  by         which  gives  172.    Discount  20 

per  cent  for  lost  time,  which  gives  137.5  square  yards. 


Production,  Square  Yards 


81 


Production,  Square  Yards  of  Regular  Cotton  Single  Thread  Fabric 

For  example  see  bottom  of  page  80 


For  10  hours  actual  running  time  when  the  number  of  cylinder  needles,  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  and  feeds  are  known. 


Cylinder  neec 

ik 

s  X  r.p.m.  X  feeds 

Yarn 

No. 

10000 

30000 

50000 

70000 

90000 

110000 

130000 

150000 

170000 

190000 

210000 

5 

26.87 

80.62 

134.40 

188.10 

241.90 

295.60 

349 

.40 

403. 

10 

456.9 

510.6 

564.4 

6 

22.40 

67.19 

112.00 

156.80 

201.50 

246.40 

291 

.20 

336. 

00 

380.8 

425.5 

470 . 3 

7 

19.20 

57 . 59 

95.99 

134.40 

172.80 

211.20 

249.60 

288. 

00 

326.4 

364 .8 

403.2 

8 

16.80 

50.40 

83.99 

117.60 

151.20 

184.80 

218.40 

252. 

00 

285.  e 

319.2 

352.8 

9 

14.93 

44.79 

74.65 

104.50 

134.40 

164.20 

194.10 

224 

00 

253.  S 

283.7 

313.5 

10 

13.44 

40.31 

67.19 

94.06 

120.90 

147.80 

174.70 

201 

60 

228.4 

255.3 

282.2 

11 

12.22 

36.65 

61.08 

85.52 

109.90 

134.40 

158.80 

183 

30 

207.7 

232.1 

256.5 

12 

11.20 

33.59 

55.98 

78.38 

100.80 

123.20 

145.60 

168 

00 

190.4 

212.7 

235.1 

13 

10.34 

31.01 

51.68 

72.36 

93.02 

113.70 

134.40 

155 

00 

175.7 

196.4 

217.1 

14 

9.598 

28.79 

47.99 

67.18 

86.38 

105.60 

124.80 

144 

00 

163.2 

182.4 

201.6 

15 

8.958 

26.87 

44.79 

62.70 

80.62 

c 

8.54 

116.40 

134 

40 

152.3 

170.2 

188.1 

15 

8.398 

25.20 

41.99 

58.79 

75.59 

2.39 

109.20 

126 

00 

142.  f 

I 

159.6 

176.4 

17 

7.905 

23.71 

39.52 

55.33 

71.14 

6.96 

102.80 

118 

60 

134.4 

150.2 

166.0 

18 

7.465 

22.40 

37.33 

52.26 

67.18 

82.12 

97.06 

112 

00 

126.9 

141.8 

156.8 

19 

7.072 

21.22 

35.36 

49.50 

63.64 

77.80 

9 

.94 

106 

10 

120.2 

134.4 

148.5 

20 

6.719 

20.16 

33.59 

47.03 

60.46 

73.90 

87.34 

100 

80 

114.2 

127.7 

141.1 

21 

6.398 

19.20 

31.99 

44.79 

57.58 

70.38 

83.18 

95 

98 

108.5 

i 

121.6 

134.4 

22 

6.108 

18.32 

30.54 

42.76 

54.97 

67.19 

79.41 

91 

63 

103.  J 

i 

116.0 

128.3 

Cylinder  needles  X  r.p.m.X  feeds 

Yarn 

No. 

230000 

250000 

270000 

290000 

310000 

330000 

350000 

370000 

390000 

410000 

5 

618. 1 

671. 

9 

725. 

6 

779. 

4 

833. 

1 

886 

8 

940.6 

994.4 

1048.0 

1102.0 

6 

515.1 

555. 

9 

604. 

7 

649. 

5 

694. 

3 

739 

1 

783.9 

828.7 

873.4 

918.2 

7 

441 .5 

480.0 

518.3 

556. 

7 

595. 

1 

633 

5 

672.0 

710.3 

748.7 

787.1 

3 

386.4 

420.0 

453. 

5 

487. 

2 

520. 

7 

554 

3 

587.9 

621.6 

655.1 

688.7 

9 

343.4 

373. 

2 

403. 

1 

433.0 

462. 

B 

492 

.7 

522.5 

552.4 

582.2 

612.1 

10 

309.1 

^35. 

9 

362. 

S 

389. 

7 

416. 

5 

443 

.4 

470.3 

497.2 

524.0 

550.9 

11 

281.0 

305. 

i 

329. 

S 

354. 

3 

378. 

7 

403 

1 

427.6 

452.0 

476.4 

500.8 

12 

257.5 

279. 

9 

302. 

324. 

7 

347. 

1 

369 

5 

391.9 

414.3 

436.7 

459.0 

13 

237.7 

258. 

i 

279. 

1 

299. 

S 

320.4 

341 

1 

361.8 

382.4 

403.1 

423.8 

14 

220.8 

240.0 

259. 

1 

278.3 

297. 

5 

316 

7 

335.9 

355.1 

374.3 

393.5 

15 

206.0 

223. 

9 

241. 

9 

259. 

B 

277. 

7 

295 

6 

313.5 

331.4 

349.4 

367.2 

16 

193.2 

210.0 

226. 

243. 

5 

260.4 

277 

2 

294.0 

310.2 

327.5 

344.3 

17 

181.8 

197. 

5 

213.4 

229. 

2 

245.0 

260 

9 

276.7 

292.5 

308.3 

324.1 

18 

171.7 

186. 

5 

201. 

5 

216.5 

231.4 

246 

4 

261.3 

276.2 

291.1 

306.1 

19 

162.7 

176. 

190.9 

205. 

1 

219. 

2 

233 

4 

247.5 

261.7 

275.8 

290.0 

20 

154.5 

168.0 

181.4 

194. 

208.3 

221 

7 

235.1 

248.6 

262.0 

275.5 

21 

147.2 

160.0 

172.7 

185.6 

198.3 

211 

1 

223.9 

236.7 

249.5 

262.3 

22 

140.5 

152. 

7 

164.9 

177. 

1 

189.5 

201 

6 

201.6 

226.0 

238.2 

250.4 

This  table  is  based  on: 

Stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  equal  9.8v'No.  of  the  yarn  for  rib  fabric  and 
19.6 VNo.  of  the  yarn  for  flat  fabric. 
Stitches  per  square  inch  of  fabric  equal  34.453  X  No.  of  the  yarn. 


82 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Rib-top  Production  Table  —  Explanation 

This  table  gives  the  production  in  dozen  pairs  of  rib  tops  foi 
single-feed  ribbers  running  700  diametral  inches  per  minute 
that  is,  a  3-inch  running  700  3  =  233  r.p.m.  If  the  two- 
speed  drive  is  used,  deduct  4  per  cent  for  every  tenth  of  tht 
time  it  is  used.  Deduction  should  also  be  made  for  lost  time 
in  whatever  proportion  of  the  whole  time  it  amounts  to. 

To  use  the  table  count  the  courses  per  inch  in  the  rib  top 
in  question;  or  if  none  is  at  hand,  use  the  courses  in  the  guid( 
table.    Suppose  no  sample  is  at  hand,  but  that  it  is  desired  tc 

Rib-top  Table 


Cut 


Average 
courses 


2} 


Rib-top  Production 


83 


know  how  many  dozen  pairs  of  rib  tops  will  be  made  under  the 
following  conditions : 

Cut  10. 

Courses  (from  table)  27. 
Length  15  inches. 
Diameter  of  machine  4^. 

Two-speed  drive  is  used  on  low  speed  about  |  time. 
Lost  time  is  estimated  10  per  cent. 

Desired,  the  production  in  pairs  of  rib  tops  per  9-hour  day. 
Rib-top  Table 


Diameters:  One  feed 


3 

H 

3^ 

3f 

4 

4i 

4^ 

4f 

5 

5i 

51 

87.5 

80.8 

75.0 

■70.0 

65.6 

61.7 

58.3 

55.3 

52.5 

50.0 

44.7 

75.0 

69  2 

64.3 

60.0 

56.2 

52.9 

50.0 

47.3 

45.0 

43.0 

40.9 

65.6 

60.6 

56.3 

52  5 

49.4 

46.3 

43.8 

41.4 

39.4 

37.5 

35.8 

58.3 

53.8 

50.0 

46.7 

43.8 

41.2 

38.9 

36.8 

35.0 

33.3 

31.8 

52.5 

48.5 

45.0 

42.0 

39.4 

37.1 

35.0 

33.2 

31.5 

30.0 

28.6 

47.7 

44.1 

40.9 

38.2 

35.8 

33.7 

31.8 

30.1 

28.6 

27.3 

26.0 

43.8 

40.4 

37.5 

35.0 

32.8 

30.9 

29.2 

27.6 

26.2 

23.3 

23.9 

40.4 

37.3 

34.6 

32.3 

30.3 

28.5 

26.9 

25.5 

24.2 

23.1 

22.0 

37.5 

34.6 

32.2 

30.0 

28.1 

26.5 

25.0 

23.7 

22.5 

21.4 

20.5 

35.0 

32.3 

30.0 

28.0 

26.3 

24.7 

23.3 

22.1 

21.0 

20,0 

19.1 

32.8 

30.3 

28.1 

26.2 

24.6 

23.2 

21.9 

20.7 

19.7 

18.8 

17.9 

30.9 

28.5 

26.5 

24.7 

23.2 

21.8 

20.6 

19.5 

18.5 

17,6 

16.8 

29.2 

26.9 

25.0 

23.3 

21.9 

20.6 

19.4 

18.4 

17.5 

16.7 

15.9 

27.6 

25.5 

23.7 

22.1 

20.7 

19.5 

18.4 

17.4 

16.6 

15.8 

15  1 

26.3 

24.2 

22.5 

21.0 

19.7 

18.5 

17.5 

16.6 

15.8 

15.0 

14.3 

23.9 

23.1 

21.4 

20.0 

18.8 

17.6 

16.7 

15.8 

15.0 

14.3 

13.6 

23.8 

22.0 

20.5 

19.1 

17.9 

16.8 

15.9 

15.1 

14.3 

13.6 

13.0 

22.8 

20.6 

19.6 

18.3 

17.1 

16.1 

15.2 

14.4 

13.7 

13.0 

12.5 

21.9 

20.2 

18.8 

17.5 

16.4 

15.4 

14.6 

13.8 

13.1 

12.5 

11.9 

21.0 

19.4 

18.0 

16.8 

15.8 

14.8 

14.0 

13.3 

12.6 

12.0 

11.5 

20.2 

18.6 

17.3 

16.2 

15.1 

14.3 

13.5 

12.8 

12.1 

11.5 

11.0 

19.4 

17.9 

16.7 

15.6 

14.6 

13.7 

13.0 

12.3 

11.7 

11.1 

10.6 

18.8 

17.3 

16.1 

15.0 

14.1 

13.2 

12.5 

11.8 

11.3 

10.7 

10  2 

18.1 

16  7 

15.5 

14.5 

13.6 

12,8 

12.1 

11.4 

10.9 

10.3 

9.9 

17.5 

16.2 

15.0 

14.0 

13.1 

12.4 

11.7 

11.1 

10.5 

10.0 

9.5 

13.1 

12.1 

11.2 

10.5 

9.8 

9.3 

8.8 

8.3 

7.9 

7.5 

7.2 

10.5 

9.7 

9.0 

8.4 

7.9 

7.4 

7.0 

6.6 

5.5 

6.0 

5.7 

8.8 

8.1 

7.5 

7.0 

6.6 

6  2 

5.8 

5.5 

5.2 

5.0 

4.8 

7.5 

6.9 

6  4 

6.0 

5.6 

5.3 

5.0 

4.7 

4.5 

4.3 

4.1 

5.6 

5.4 

5.0 

4.7 

4.4 

4.1 

3.9 

3.7 

3.5 

3.3 

3.2 

4.8 

4.4 

4.1 

3.8 

3.6 

3  4 

3.2 

3.0 

2.9 

2.7 

2.6 

Dozen  pairs  per  9  hours  actual  time. 


84 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Follow  down  the  column  marked  inches  to  15,  the  length  of 
the  top;  then  doA\Ti  the  diagonal  column  to  the  left  to  27,  the 
number  of  courses;  then  horizontally  to  the  right  to  the  column 
headed  4^,  the  diameter  of  the  ribber,  where  is  8.8  the  number 
of  dozen  pairs  of  rib  tops.  Deduct  8  per  cent  for  two-speed 
drive,  which  is  0.35,  leaving  8.45,  and  then  deduct  10  per  cent 
for  lost  time,  which  is  0.85,  leaving  8  dozen  pairs,  in  round 
numbers,  which  is  the  production  for  a  nine-hour  day. 

RELATIVE  PRODUCTION  OF  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  KNIT- 
TING MACHINES 

The  importance  of  the  fabric  formulas  is  illustrated  by  the 
light  which  they  throw  on  the  relative  production  of  different 
kinds  of  knitting  machines. 

The  formulas  show  not  only  the  actual  corresponding  pro- 
duction for  the  conditions  assumed,  but  also  the  principles  by 
which  comparison  may' be  made  for  any  other  conditions. 

Results  according  to  the  formulas  will  be  considered  first,  and 
the  general  considerations  will  be  given  afterward. 

Primarily  it  is  best  to  consider  the  production  per  feed,  since 
practice  varies  so  much  in  regard  to  the  number  of  feeds  used 
with  a  given  diameter  of  machine  that  no  other  unquestionable 
ground  could  be  found.  Of  course,  the  relative  speed,  yarn  and 
stitch  have  to  be  assumed.  They  are  discussed  quite  fully  in 
different  places  in  this  book,  but  are  roughly  summarized  here 
to  avoid  confusion. 

One  obstacle  in  the  way  of  comparisons  formerly  was  the 
absence  of  a  connecting  link  between  any  two  different  kinds 
of  machine.  For  instance,  if  the  same  number  of  needles  per 
inch  was  considered,  there  was  a  question  about  the  fairness  of 
such  a  basis  due  to  the  fact  that  different  yarn  was  used  on  the 
different  machines  for  the  same  number  of  needles  per  inch,  and 
since  the  relative  size  of  the  yarn  was  not  known,  the  question 
was  unanswerable.  The  length  of  the  stitch  had  but  Uttle  atten- 
tion. But  the  yam-cut  rules  and  stitch  rules  provide  the  missing 
links,  so  that  comparison  may  be  made  on  the  basis  of  either  the 
same  cut  or  of  the  same  yarn,  both  of  which  comparisons  are 
necessary  for  a  comprehensive  understanding  of  the  subject. 

The  table  gives:  (1)  the  formulas  just  as  they  appear  in  the 
tabulations  of  formulas  for  regular  fabrics;  (2)  the  actual  pro- 
duction per  feed  per  ten  hours  for  12  cut  and  24  yarn,  a  suitable 


Relative  Production  of  Different  Types  of  Knitting  Machines  85 


Relative  Production  of  Latch-needle  Rib  Machine  and  Spring-needle  Loop- 
wheel  Machine  Under  Following  Relative  Conditions 


Relative  yarn 
No.  for  same 
cut 

R.p.m.  of  20 
in.  cyl. 

Cyl.  stitches 
per  foot  of  j^arn 

Latch-needle  rib  

Spring-needle  loop-wheel  

3  (about) 
1 

35 
50 

1 

1.16 

Comparison.  One  Rib  Feed  to  One  Flat  Feed 


{Same  yarn 
Same  cut. . 


Square  j 
yards  •! 
production  [ 


Same  yarn. 


Same  cut . . . 


Rule 

Rib 

Flat 

131 

161 

No. 

No. 

786 

2867 

Cut2 

Cut2 

72.39 

178 

VNo. 

177.31 

750.6 

Cut 

Cut 

24  yarn  

12  cut  (18  gauge) 
24  yarn  


12  cut  (18  gauge) 


Actual 


Rib  Flat 


5.46 


14.78 


14.78 


19.9 


36.3 


62.5 


Propor- 
tion 


Rib  Flat 


1.23 


3.65 


4.23 


Comparison.   Two  Rib  Feeds  to  One  Flat  Feed 


(Same  yarn . 
Same  cut . . 


fSame  yarn . 
Same  cut... 


262 

161 

No. 

No. 

1572 

2867 

Cut2 

Cut2 

144.78 

178 

^No. 

VNo. 

354.62 

750.6 

Cut 

Cut 

24  yarn  

12  cut  (18  gauge) 
24  yarn  


12  cut  (18  gauge) 


10.92 

6.71 

1 

10.92 

19.9 

1 

29.56 

36.3 

1 

29.56 

62.5 

1 

.62 


1.83 


1.23 


2.12 


86 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


combination  for  the  latch-needle  rib  machine;  and  (3)  the 
relative  production,  considering  that  of  the  rib  machine  as  1. 
Then  all  this  is  repeated  with  the  production  of  the  rib  feed 
doubled,  in  order  to  show  roughly  the  relative  production  per 
machine  (cylinder),  since  in  practice  the  number  of  feeds  used 
per  machine  is  about  two  to  one,  in  favor  of  the  rib  machine. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  when  the  yarn  is  aUke  the  cut 
of  the  machines  is  different,  and  when  the  cut  is  alike  the  yarn 
is  different;  so  when  24  yarn  is  the  basis  of  comparison,  the  rib 
machine  is  12  cut  and  the  loop-wheel  machine  31  gauge,  whereas 
when  the  cut  is  12  (18  gauge),  the  yarn  on  the  loop-wheel  machine 
is  No.  8  and  on  the  rib  machine  24. 

Not  only  the  actual  production,  but  the  proportional  pro- 
duction also  may  be  obtained  from  the  formulas,  as  is  illustrated 
by  the  pounds  production  per  feed  for  yarn  the  same  (24). 
Comparing  rib  to  flat,  the  formula  constants  are  131  to  161,  the 
actual  pounds  are  5.46  to  6.71,  and  the  relative  pounds  are  1  to 
1.23;  these  are  all  in  the  same  proportion. 

The  comparison  of  production  per  machine  shows  the  rib 
machine  to  lead  in  pounds  for  the  same  yarn  as  100  to  62,  but 
to  fall  behind  in  the  yardage  as  100  to  183.  The  loop-wheel 
machine  leads  for  the  same  cut  both  in  pounds  and  yards. 

Although  the  comparison  just  made  is  useful  when  the 
formulas  fit  the  conditions,  it  is  desirable  to  understand  the 
reasons  why  the  production  of  one  type  of  machine  differs  from 
another.  The  general  principles  may  be  shown  by  taking  the 
production  of  one  machine  and  modifying  it  according  to  the 
given  conditions  until  it  shows  the  production  of  the  other 
machine.  For  simplicity  the  reduction  will  be  made  from  the 
latch-needle  rib  machine  to  the  loop-wheel  flat-work  machine. 

Although  the  factors  involved  are  comparatively  simple, 
still  confusion  is  likely  to  result  if  the  production  in  pounds  is  not 
considered  separately  from  the  production  in  square  yards,  so 
the  production  in  pounds  will  be  considered  first,  under  the  two 
general  cases:  (1)  the  same  yarn;  (2)  the  same  cut.  Then  the 
production  in  square  yards  will  be  considered  in  the  same  order. 

Relative  Production  of  Different  Types  of  Knitting  Machines 
per  Feed 

Latch-needle  Rib  Compared  to  Loop-wheel  Spring-needle  Flat- 
work  Machine 
pounds,  yarn  the  same. 


Relative  Production  of  Different  Types  of  Knitting  Machines  87 


Factors  which  Affect  the  Difference  in  Production 

Needle  Velocity.   Assumed  35  to  50    or  1  to  1.43 


ilib  to  Flat 


Length  of  yarn 
fed  in  equal 
needle  travel 
Cut 
Stitches 


Formulas  2i495  v^^^ 

9.798  VNo. 
4.2165  VNo. 
19.596  VN^. 


or  1  to 


Relative  Production  Calculation 

(\"elocityj  (Length  yam) 


aib. 


1  X 


1.43 
1 


X 


Pounds.    Cut  the  Same. 
Additional  Factor. 

ilib  to  Flat ,  Diameter  of  Yarn .  Formulas . 


Q-^Q  =  1.23    pounds    production  per 
1  feed  of  flat  to  1  of  rib 

for  yarn  the  same. 


to 


8.573  Cut      4.98  Cut 
or  1     to  1.72. 


lib.  1  X 


Relative  Production  Calculation 

(Velocity) (Length  yarn)(Dia.  yarn  squared) 

1.72 


1.43 
1 


X 


0.86 
1 


1  72       J.  .  ^ 
X  X  =  3.65  pounds  pro- 

^       duction  per  feed  of 

flat  to  1  of  rib  for 

cut  the  same. 


The  relative  velocity  needs  no  explanation,  since  it  is  clear 
hat  if  all  other  conditions  are  the  same,  a  machine  which  runs 
aster  than  another  will  produce  more  fabric. 

Now  in  this  case  there  is  one  factor  other  than  the  velocity 
0  be  considered,  which  factor  is  the  relative  length  of  yarn 
vhich  is  dra^^Ti  in  by  each  machine  for  an  equal  needle  travel, 
t  is  evident  that  if  machines  A  and  B  are  of  the  same  cut  and 
lave  the  same  needle  velocity,  but  A  is  running  at  30  stitches 
)er  foot  of  yarn  and  B  at  40  stitches,  then  B  has  to  run  farther 
n  order  to  use  a  foot  of  yarn,  and  the  distance  it  has  to  run  as 
ompared  to  A  is  as  40  is  to  30.  Therefore,  when  each  runs  an 
qual  distance,  the  relative  lengths  of  yarn  consumed  will  be  as 
H  30  is  to  1  -f-  40,  which  is  the  same  as  40  is  to  30.  Conse- 
luently,  the  length  of  yarn  consumed  by  two  machines  of  the  same 
ut  and  needle  velocity  is  inversely  proportional  to  their  respective 
titches  per  foot  of  yarn. 
If  the  machines  have  the  same  needle  velocity  and  stitches 


88 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


per  foot  of  yam,  but  A  has  a  finer  cut,  then  A  will  draw  the 
yarn  in  faster,  since  it  will  draw  more  stitches  during  an  equal 
travel.  And  since  the  machines  to  be  compared  are  frequently 
of  different  cut,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  means  of  comparison 
which  will  take  into  consideration  both  the  stitches  per  foot  of 
yarn  and  the  cut.  This  means  can  be  worked  out  as  follows. 
The  stitches  per  foot  divided  by  the  cut  give  the  distance  in 
inches  which  each  machine  must  travel  in  order  to  draw  in  an 
equal  length  of  yarn.  Therefore,  the  reciprocal  of  this,  that  is, 
the  cut  divided  by  the  stitches,  gives  the  relative  length  of  yarn 
drawn  in  for  an  equal  needle  travel.  Consequently,  the  length 
of  yarn  consumed  by  each  of  two  machines  of  the  same  needle  velocity 
but  different  cuts  is  proportional  to  the  cut  divided  by  the  stitches  per 
foot  of  yarn,  respectively.  ^ 

The  length-of-yarn  factor  used  is  worked  out  according  to  the 
last  statement,  which  factor  together  with  the  velocity  factoi 
shows  that  when  a  latch-needle  rib  machine  produces  one  pound 
per  feed  a  loop-wheel  flat-work  machine,  using  the  same  yarn 
produces  1.23  pounds.  This  was  shown  before  by  a  comparisor 
of  the  results  obtained  with  the  formulas,  but  this  methoc 
shows  how  it  may  be  determined  without  the  formulas,  provided 
the  relative  cuts,  stitches,  and  velocities  are  known. 

'^Mien  the  yarn  used  on  the  two  machines  is  different,  the 
problem  is  just  the  same  as  before  with  the  exception  that  the 
added  factor  of  diameter  of  yarn  squared  has  to  be  used  since 
the  machine  using  the  heavier  yarn  will  produce  more  in  the 
proportion  of  the  square  of  the  diameter. 

Square  yards.  —  Yarn  the  same.    (See  Factors,  page  87.) 

Relative  Production  Calculation 

(Velocity)    (Width  of  Fabric) 

Rib.   1    X   -~  X    ~r—  =  2.46    square-yards  productioc 
•'•  ^  per  feed  of  fiat  to  1  oJ 

rib  for  yarn  the  same. 

Cut  the  same. 
Relative  Production  Calculation 

(Velocity)  (Dia.  yarn  squared) 

Rib.  1  X         X  X  =  4.23  square-yards  produc- 

^  ^  ^  tion  per  feed  of  flai 

to  1  of  rib  for  cui 
the  same. 


Weight  Per  Square  Yard  Formula  —  Derivation  89 


The  following  tabulation  shows  the  method^of  working  out  the 
relative  production  in  square  yards. 

It  is  noticeable  at  once  that  the  length  of  yarn  is  not  a  factor 
in  the  square-yards  production,  but  that  the  machine  velocity 
and  yarn  diameter  are  factors.  The  reason  for  this  may  be 
understood  with  the  aid  of  the  following  tabulation  of  the  rel- 
ative machine  conditions  for  the  two  different  cases. 


Dia. 
cyl. 

Cut 

Dia. 
yarn 

Num- 
ber of 
needles 

I 

I. p.m. 

Width 
of  fabric 

Yarn  same  {  ^j^^^ 
Cut  same  { 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1.72 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 

1.72 

1 

1.72 

1 

1 

35 
50 
35 
50 

1 

1.72 
1 

1.72 

Evidently  the  diameter  of  the  machine  does  not  change,  but 
since,  for  yarn  the  same,  the  cut  does  change,  the  number  of 
needles  must  also  change.  Consequently,  for  the  same  yarn  the 
machine  with  the  more  needles  makes  the  wider  fabric,  and  with 
the  same  number  of  needles  the  machine  with  the  heavier 
yarn  makes  the  wider  fabric.  This  shows  how  it  is  that  the  yarn 
diameter  affects  the  square-yards  production.  When  the  yarn 
is  the  same,  the  fabric  is  wider  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 

i  needles,  which  is  proportional  to  the  cut,  which  is  proportional  to 
the  diameter  of  yarn  which  the  machine  would  use  with  an  equal 
cut.  Therefore,  the  square-yards  production  of  the  machine 
with  the  finer  cut  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of 
yarn  which  is  used  with  an  equal  cut. 

But  when  the  cut  is  the  same,  the  flat  machine  uses  yam 
which,  according  to  the  rule  for  corresponding  fabrics  that  the 
dimensions  of  an  individual  stitch  are  proportional  to  the 

•  diameter  of  the  yarn,  makes  the  fabric  both  wider  and  longer 
for  an  equal  number  of  stitches;  consequently,  the  square-yards 
production  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  diam- 
eter of  the  yarn. 

WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE  YARD  FORMULA —DERIVATION 

The  weight  in  pounds  of  a  square  yard  of  cloth  is  evidently 
the  number  of  stitches  in  a  yard  divided  by  the  number  of 
etitches  in  a  pound.    The  number  of  stitches  in  a  yard  is: 


90 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


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Weight  per  Square  Yard 


91 


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The  Science  of  Knitting 


Wales  per  inch  X  courses  per  inch  X  1,296  (square  inches  per 

square  yard)  (1) 

The  number  of  stitches  per  pound  is : 

Cotton  number  X  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  X  2,520  (feet  in 

cotton  No.)  (2) 

As  stated  above,  the  weight  per  yard  is  (1)      (2).  Therefore, 

■  1  1  Wales  per  inch  X  courses  per  inch 

Weight  per  yard  =  Cotton  No.  X  stitches  per  foot  X  1.944  ' 
W  XC 


or,  weight  per  yard  = 


1.944  No.  X  ^' 


Table  —  Weight  per  Square  Yard  of  Plain  Ribbed  Fabric 

Pages  90  and  91 

Excluding  stitch  distortion,  the  weight  per  square  yard  is 
dependent  on  the  number  of  the  yarn  and  on  the  stitches  per 
foot  of  yarn.  This  table  is  worked  out  for  the  ranges  of  such 
conditions  which  are  likely  to  be  encountered. 

The  weights  in  heavy  type  are  those  for  regular  ribbed  fabrics. 
Those  to  the  right  are  lighter  and  those  to  the  left  are  heavier 
than  the  regular  fabrics. 

Many  uses  of  this  table  will  be  at  once  evident.  For  instance, 
the  question  frequently  arises,  what  yarn  is  required  to  dupli- 
cate fabric  of  a  given  weight  per  square  yard?  The  table  shows 
this,  and  shows  as  well  the  stitches  per  foot  at  which  the  yarn 
must  be  run.  The  next  question  is,  what  cut  is  advisable  either 
for  the  selection  of  new  machinery  or  for  verifying  the  adapta- 
bility of  machinery  at  hand?  Suppose  that  the  required  weight 
is  obtainable  with  number  24  yarn.  The  use  of  24  yarn  under 
regular  conditions  calls  for  48  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  as  the 
weight  in  heavy  type  shows.  But  the  cut  is  one-fourth  of  the 
stitches  per  foot  of  yarn,  so  the  cut  for  good  running  conditions 
with  latch-needle  machinery  is  48  4  =  12.  Similarly  the  cut 
for  other  conditions  may  readily  be  found.  If  the  cut  so  found 
is  not  available,  then  the  yarn  may  be  changed  to  conform  to 
some  cut  which  is  available,  all  of  which  may  be  readily  and 
quickly  determined  from  the  table. 

This  table  also  shows  the  weight  of  flat  fabric  for  the  given 
yarn,  but  the  weight  is  for  two  square  yards  and  the  stitches  are 
for  half  a  foot  of  yarn.  For  instance,  regular  flat  fabric  made 
from  No.  20  yarn  weighs  0.4044  pound  per  two  square  yards 
and  the  stitches  per  six  inches  of  yarn  are  43.8. 


Weight  per  Square  Yard  Formula  —  Transformations  93 


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94 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


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Two-thread  Knitting 


95 


DETERMINING  WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE  YARD  BY  WEIGHING 

A  convenient  method  of  determining  the  weight  per  square 
yard  when  it  cannot  be  calculated  is  to  cut  the  fabric  by  means 
of  a  circular  die,  say  If  inches  in  diameter,  and  weigh  the  cut- 
ting.   The  area  of  the  disc  cut  with  this  size  die  is  2.405  inches. 

The  weight  per  square  inch  =     ^^^^^q^  ^^^^  >  and  since  there 

are  1296  square  inches  in  a  square  yard,  the 

1T7  •  1      Wt.  of  disc  ^ 

Weight  per  square  yard  =  — ^  X  1296 

=  Wt.  of  disc  X  538.8. 
The  balance  may  be  graduated  in  any  unit,  such  as  grains  or 
pounds,  as  long  as  it  is  remembered  that  the  result  is  in  the 
same  unit.  As  a  rule  it  is  convenient  to  use  the  pound,  both 
because  the  goods  are  generally  classified  by  the  number  of 
pounds  per  dozen,  and  because  the  cotton  yarn  unit  of  weight 
is  the  pound.  However,  convenience  is  the  principal  guide  in 
selecting  both  the  unit  of  weight  and  the  size  of  the  disc.  When 
accuracy  is  required,  several  discs  should  be  cut  at  one  time, 
in  order  to  get  a  greater  area  to  w^eigh,  as  well  as  a  better  aver- 
age, if  the  cuttings  are  from  different  portions  of  the  fabric,  as 
they  may  readily  be  if  the  fabric  is  folded  with  that  intention. 
Also  a  comparison  of  the  weights  of  these  different  discs  shows 
the  variation  in  the  weight  of  the  fabric.  Of  course,  when  a 
sample  of  the  fabric  is  at  hand  and  the  yarn  and  stitches  per 
foot  are  known,  the  weight  per  square  yard  may  be  calculated 
by  use  of  the  formula,  so  that  there  is  no  need  of  weighing; 
but  when  the  yarn  number  or  the  stitches  per  foot  are  not 
known,  either  one  may  be  obtained  from  the  formula  (trans- 
formed) after  the  weight  per  yard  is  determined  by  weighing. 


TWO-THREAD  KNITTING 

Advantages.  —  Among  the  advantages  of  two-thread  knitting 
over  single-thread  may  be  mentioned  the  following: 

1.  The  possibility  of  obtaining  heavier  fabric  on  any  one  cut, 
since  two  threads  may  be  knit  more  readily  than  a  single  thread 
of  the  weight  of  the  two  threads. 

2.  Decreased  trouble  in  knitting,  owing  to  the  facts  that  knots 
and  bunches  are  smaller,  that  weak  places  in  one  yarn  are  not 


96 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


likely  to  part  (since  the  other  yarn  carries  the  load),  and  that 
even  if  one  yarn  does  part,  the  other  generally  keeps  the  fabric 
on  the  needles. 

3.  Improved  appearance  of  the  fabric,  since  inequalities  in  the 
yarn  tend  to  compensate,  and  to  make  clearer  work  than  one  yarn 
of  as  good  quality  as  the  two  yarns. 

4.  More  durable  fabric,  since  both  threads  in  a  stitch  are  not 
so  likely  to  break  as  a  single  thread,  even  though  the  single  thread 
be  somewhat  larger. 

Disadvantages.  —  Among  the  disadvantages  are  the  following: 

1.  When  the  yarn  is  of  the  same  kind,  the  cost  is  greater,  since 
double  spinning  is  required. 

2.  When  the  machine  continues  running  after  one  thread 
breaks,  a  large  piece  of  fabric  may  be  spoiled. 

3.  The  number  of  threads  is  doubled,  so  the  stoppage  for  lost 
ends  is  doubled. 

4.  Less  elasticity. 

Plating.  —  If  the  work  is  plated,  i.e.,  if  one  thread  shows  on 
the  face  of  the  goods  and  the  other  does  not,  then  there  are  the 
further  advantages  that  the  appearance  of  the  goods  is  much 
smoother,  and  that  the  thread  which  does  not  show  may  be  of 
less  expensive  material  than  the  other. 

Generally  Advisable  to  Plate  Two-thread  Work.  —  The 
smooth  appearance  is  due  to  the  avoidance  of  twisted  threads 
in  the  stitches.  Therefore,  it  is  advisable  to  plate  two-thread 
work,  whether  it  is  required  to  hide  one  thread  or  not. 

Conditions  for  Plating.  —  The  conditions  for  plating  are  to  keep 
the  threads  from  twisting  around  each  other  before  entering  the 
needle  and  in  a  fixed  relative  position  after  they  enter  it.  If  these 
requirements  are  remembered,  the  principal  diflEiculties  of  plating 
are  surmountable  by  the  exercise  of  observation  and  judgment. 

Testing  with  One  Feed  and  Contrasting  Colors.  —  A  good  plan 
for  adjusting  the  machine  is  to  start  onlj^  one  feed  with  the  kind 
and  size  of  yarn  to  be  used,  as  nearly  as  possible,  but  in  contrast- 
ing colors,  say  black  and  white.  It  will  be  at  once  evident  which 
thread  comes  on  the  face,  and  if  it  is  not  the  right  one,  it  may 
be  transposed;  also  the  quality  of  the  plating  will  be  very  clear. 
If  it  is  poor,  the  machine  should  be  turned  very  slowly  and  the 
action  of  the  yarn  observed  in  order  to  locate  the  place  where  the 
yarns  twist  around  each  other. 


Two-thread  Knitting 


97 


Locating  Causes  of  Defects.  —  As  a  rule  the  twisting  is  over- 
come or  reduced  by  keeping  the  yarns  from  touching  each  other 
up  to  the  time  they  enter  the  needles,  and  after  that  by  keeping 
control  of  them,  either  by  tension  or  otherwise. 

Separating  the  Threads  in  Feeding.  —  The  first  thing  to  do 
then  with  any  machine  is  to  conduct  the  yarn  to  the  needles  by 
separate  paths,  for  if  two 
yarns  follow  the  same 
path,  they  are  sure  to 
twist  around  each  other. 
Even  when  they  enter  the 
needles  they  should  do  so 
through  separate  holes  in 
the  guide  or  carrier;  or  if 
there  is  not  room  for  two 
holes,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case  with  fine-gauge  loop- 
wheel  machinery,  the  two 
threads  should  be  kept 
separate  by  being  guided 
to  the  hole  at  different 
angles,  or  by  some  other 
such  means. 

Machines  Considered. 
After  the  yarn  has  reached 
the  needles  the  treatment 
depends  very  much  on  the 
type  of  machine  which  is 
used.  The  spring-needle 
flat-work  machines  and 
latch-needle  rib  machine 
are  considered  here. 

Illustration  i.  —  Illus- 
tration 1  shows  a  diagram 
of  a  spring-beard  needle 
with  the  old  loop  about  to  cast  off  over  a  new  double  loop  con- 
sisting of  a  black  and  white  thread.  As  shown,  the  illustration 
applies  to  vertical-needle  machines,  such  as  the  loop-wheel 
machine,  but  it  may  be  turned  so  that  the  needle  lies  horizon- 
tally with  the  beard  up,  when  it  serves  for  most  machines  of  the 
jack-sinker  type. 


Illustration  1. 
Double-thread  loops  on  spring  needle.  The 
thread  in  the  head  of  the  needle  appears  on 
the  back  of  the  fabric. 


98 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Position  of  Threads  in  Spring  Needle.  —  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  black  thread,  cotton  say,  is  in  the  head  of  the  needle,  and  that 
the  white  one,  say  wool,  is  under  it  (behind  it,  if  the  needle  is 
horizontal) ;  also  that  in  the  up-coming  stitch  the  black  or  cotton 
thread  is  on  the  back.  If  the  positions  of  the  threads  in  the  heads 
of  the  needles  are  reversed,  then  they  will  be  reversed  in  the  fabric 
also.  Therefore,  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  feed  the  yarns  to  the 
needles  in  the  correct  relative  position  but  to  keep  them  there, 
which  latter  requirement  is  sometimes  difficult,  especially  with 
loop-wheel  machines. 

Yarn  Difficulties.  —  The  composition  and  twist  of  the  yarn  are 
sources  of  trouble,  so  the  most  used  materials,  namely  wool  and 
cotton,  should  be  considered.  In  the  first  place  there  is  the 
tendency  of  the  yarn  to  untwist,  which  tendency  is  generally 
more  pronounced  in  wool  than  in  cotton.  Then  in  the  loop- wheel 
machine  there  is  a  rolling  motion  imparted  by  the  sinker-bur 
blade  which  increases  the  tendency  to  twist. 

Rolling  by  Rotary  Sinker.  —  Moreover,  there  is  opportunity  to 
twist,  not  only  when  the  yarns  are  feeding  over  the  sinker,  but 
after  they  get  under  the  needle  beard,  for  the  cramp  of  the  needle 
must  be  sufficiently  open  to  receive  small  bunches  at  least,  so  it 
cannot  clasp  the  yarn  tightly  enough  to  hold  it  securely  in  place. 

Helps  to  Spring-needle  Plating.  —  Some  of  the  helps  to  good 
plating  on  spring  needles  may  be  understood  from  the  preceding; 
that  is,  needle  cramp  as  close  as  is  permissible,  yarns  about  of  a 
size,  and  anything  which  will  prevent  twisting  of  the  yarns  in  the 
uncontrolled  space  between  the  sinker  and  the  cast-off. 

Treatment  of  Yam.  —  Among  the  artificial  means  of  preventing 
twisting  is  deadening  the  yarn  by  emulsionizing,  dampening, 
oiling,  etc.;  but  a  better  way,  although  not  always  available,  is  to 
use  a  gauge  of  machine  as  fine  as  is  consistent  with  good  running, 
so  that  the  stitch  may  be  fairly  long,  since  the  loops  keep  their 
position  much  better  when  the  gauge  is  well  filled  and  the  loop 
is  long. 

Short  Stitches  Twist  the  Most.  —  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
custom  of  using  eveners  or  dividers  on  loop-wheel  machines  which 
knit  fine  yarn  with  a  tight  stitch,  and  of  not  using  them  with 
heavy  yarn  and  a  long  stitch. 

Silk  and  Worsted.  —  When  it  is  impractical  to  use  yarn  of 
about  the  same  size,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  knitting  a  silk 
face  and  a  worsted  back,  where  the  cost  of  an  equal-size  silk  yarn 


Two-thread  Knitting 


99 


would  be  prohibitive,  then  deadening  the  yarn  must  often  be 
resorted  to. 

Casting-off  from  Spring  Needle.  —  Suppose  that  the  two 
threads  are  kept  in  the  correct  relative  position  until  they  get  to 
the  cast-off.  This  is  one  of  the  troublesome  places,  especially  in 
loop-wheel  knitting.  By  reference  to  Illustration  1,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  old  loop  has  to  move  up  over  the  new  double  one 
without  disturbing  its  own  structure  or  the  relative  position  of 
the  yarns  in  the  new  loop.  With  a  needle  as  closely  cramped  as 
the  one  shown  the  new  loop  is  comparatively  safe,  but  such  a  close 
cramp  is  impractical;  moreover,  as  the  old  loop  comes  up,  the 
black  thread  on  the  back  is  likely  to  be  rolled  through  upon  the 
face  by  the  friction  against  the  new  loop.  This  is  aggravated 
not  only  by  the  upward  pull  of  the  fabric,  but  by  the  crude 
action  of  the  cast-off  blade. 

Comparison  of  Jack  Cast-off  and  Rotary  Cast-off.  —  Conse- 
quently, machines  in  which  the  fabric  draws  at  right  angles  to 
the  needles  and  in  which  jack  cast-offs  are  used,  do  better  plating 
as  far  as  casting-off  is  concerned.  Moreover,  they  do  better  work 
as  far  as  sinking  the  stitch  is  concerned,  since  they  are  generally 
equipped  with  jack  sinkers  which  place  the  yarn  in  position  and 
then  retire  directly,  instead  of  retiring  with  a  rolling  motion  as 
does  the  fixed  bur  blade.  One  important  factor  which  counts  in 
favor  of  the  plating  on  jack-sinker  machines  is  practice,  for  where 
jack-sinker  machines  are  used  two-thread  fabrics  are  much  more 
common,  so  that  jack-sinker  knitters  have  opportunity  to  become 
more  expert  in  this  kind  of  work. 

Two  Sinker  Burs.  —  Before  leaving  the  loop-wheel  machine 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  use  of  two  sinkers  for  plating. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  needle  drives  the  sinker  bur,  it  is 
inadvisable  to  overload  the  latter,  and  since  two-thread  work  is 
generally  made  heavier  than  single-thread  work  of  the  same  gauge, 
it  is  not  uncommon  to  divide  the  work  of  sinking  between  two 
burs,  in  which  case  the  first  to  feed  the  needle  carries  the  thread 
which  goes  on  the  back  of  the  fabric. 

Short  Stitch  for  Concealed  Yam.  —  This  practice  enables  mak- 
ing the  stitch  of  the  back  thread  tighter  than  that  of  the  face 
thread,  which  is  frequently  done  and  seems  to  be  warranted  by 
the  evidently  shorter  path  occupied  by  the  thread  on  the  back  of 
the  fabric. 

With  two  sinkers  the  feed  occupies  additional  space,  so  that 


100 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


the  number  of  feeds  per  cy Under  is  more  restricted;  and  there 
is  increased  danger  of  the  yarn  dropping  out  of  the  needles 
owing  to  the  increased  distance  from  the  first  sinker  to  the  cast-off ;  | 
but  there  is  the  advantage  that  with  differently  colored  yarns, 
checks  and  vertical  stripes  may  be  made  by.  blocking  certain 
spaces  in  the  face  sinker,  which  floats  the  face  thread  on  the 
back  of  the  fabric  and  lets  the  back  color  show  through  on  the 
face. 


Illustration  2. 

Double-thread  loops  on  latch  needle.    The  thread  nearest  the  point  of  the 
hook  is  hidden  in  the  fabric.    The  dial  needle  is  not  shown. 

Illustration  2.  —  Illustration  2  shows  a  latch  needle  which 
has  just  drawn  a  double  loop  for  ribbing  and  which  is  about 
to  clear  the  old  loop  over  the  new  loop. 

Position  of  Thread  in  Latch  Needle.  —  It  will  be  noticed  that 
in  this  case  the  thread  which  is  hidden  is  toward  the  latch,  or 
outside,  as  the  needle  generally  stands;  that  this  thread  is  hidden 
between  the  back  and  the  face  instead  of  being  left  exposed  on 
the  back;  and  that  its  path  is  much  shorter  than  that  of  the 


Twist  in  Flat  Knit  Fabric  Made  With  Self-feeding  Needles  101 


other  thread,  which  probably  accounts  for  the  practice  of  using 
tension  on  it  in  order  to  improve  the  plating;  although  it  is 
doubtful  if  much  difference  can  be  made  in  the  length  of  yarn 
fed,  since  the  construction  of  the  machine  makes  nearly  equal 
lengths  imperative. 

Two  Holes  in  Carrier.  —  A  good  way  of  keeping  the  yarns 
apart  before  they  reach  the  needles  is  to  use  two  holes  in  the 
carrier,  one  in  the  usual  position  feeding  to  the  inside,  and  the 
other  feeding  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  carrier.  In  this  case  it 
is  advisable  to  withdraw  the  dial  needle  sooner  than  is  usual, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of  catching  the  dial  latch  in  the 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  carrier.  With  the  threads  separated 
in  this  way  good  plating  of  the  cylinder  stitches  is  obtained. 

Plating  Inside  of  Rib  Fabric.  —  If  plating  of  the  dial  stitches 
also  is  desired,  the  tension  must  be  kept  on  the  loops  with  proper 
cam  arrangement  until  the  dial  stitches  are  cleared.  If  this  re- 
quirement is  met,  the  yarn  to  be  hidden  will  slide  up  into  the 
head  of  the  dial  needle  and  occupy  the  position  nearest  the 
latch  just  as  it  does  in  the  cylinder  needle. 

Tracing  Trouble.  —  The  causes  of  defective  plating  may 
frequently  be  located  from  an  examination  of  the  fabric  con- 
taining the  defects.  Reversal  of  the  yarn  before  it  gets  into  the 
needles  is  generally  indicated  by  a  streak  along  a  course.  Re- 
versal in  clearing  the  stitch  is  generally  indicated  by  appear- 
ance of  the  back  thread  at  the  edge  of  the  wales  at  irregular 
intervals,  except  when  the  needle  has  something  to  do  with 
the  trouble,  when  the  w^ale  w411  show  the  defect  throughout  its 
length. 

TWIST  IN  FLAT  KNIT  FABRIC  MADE  WITH  SELF-FEEDING 
NEEDLES 

The  yarn  generally  comes  to  the  knitter  on  cones.  So  the 
subject  of  twist  begins  for  him  with  the  cone.  It  will  be  con- 
ceded that  the  yarn  on  this  cone  has  a  certain  amount  of  twist, 
either  right-hand  or  left-hand  as  the  case  may  be.  It  does  not 
matter  whether  part  of  that  twist  was  put  into  the  yarn  in  con- 
ing it  or  not.    This  is  as  true  of  a  bobbin  as  it  is  of  a  cone. 

Right-hand  Twist.  —  Right-hand  twist  is  such  that  if  the  yarn 
could  be  turned  into  metal,  it  would  look  and  act  like  a  right- 
hand  screw;  that  is,  by  turning  it  into  a  board  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  hands  of  a  clock  it  would  draw  itself  into  the  wood. 


102 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Motion  in  this  direction  is  called  clockwise  because  it  is  like 
that  of  the  hands  of  a  clock. 

Left-hand  Twist.  —  Yarn  with  left-hand  twist,  if  solidified, 
would  have  to  be  turned  in  the  opposite  direction  in  order  to 
make  it  enter  the  board,  which  direction  is  called  anti-clockwise 
because  it  is  opposed  to  that  of  the  hands  of  a  clock. 

Point  of  View  does  not  Affect  Direction  of  Twist.  —  Turning 
the  yarn  end  for  end  does  not  alter  the  appearance  of  the  twist, 
so  its  direction  can  always  be  recognized. 

Extent  of  Twist.  —  The  extent  of  the  twist  is  designated  by 
the  number  of  turns  per  inch,  just  as  is  that  of  a  screw  thread. 


Illustration  1. 


Strip  of  paper  pulled  lengthwise  from  a  pencil  on  which  it  had  been  coiled 
in  an  anti-clockwise  direction.  The  twist  in  the  paper  is  right-hand,  and 
there  are  as  many  twists  as  there  were  coils.  Similarly,  right-hand  twist 
is  put  into  yarn  when  it  is  pulled  off  a  cone  on  which  it  was  wound  in  an 
anti-clockwise  direction. 

Suppose  that  the  piece  of  yarn  is  one  inch  long  and  has  no  twist. 
Then  if  one  end  is  held  and  the  other  is  given  five  complete 
revolutions,  the  yarn  twist  is  five  to  the  inch.  When  released, 
the  yarn  will  shorten  somewhat,  so  that  the  twist  of  that  par- 
ticular piece  will  be  more  than  five  to  the  inch  since  then  there 
will  be  less  than  an  inch  of  yarn.  The  actual  twist  of  this  piece 
of  yam  or  of  any  piece  is  the  number  of  complete  turns  in  a 
given  length  divided  by  that  length.  For  instance,  if  there  are 
twenty  turns  in  two  inches,  the  twist  is  20     2,  or  10  to  the  inch. 

Determining  Extent  of  Twist.  —  A  convenient  method  of 
determining  the  number  of  turns  is  to  cut  a  known  length,  say 
two  inches,  and  hold  one  end  while  the  other  end  is  untwisted 
and  each  turn  is  counted  until  the  strands  are  straight.  The 
number  of  turns  divided  by  the  length  gives  the  extent  of  the 
twist. 


Twist  in  Flat  Knit  Fabric  Made  With  Self-feeding  Needles  103 


Twist  of  Yarn  is  Affected  by  Delivery  from  Package.  —  Con- 
sider that  the  yarn  is  on  the  knitting  machine,  but  not  yet 
threaded  to  run  into  the  needles.  As  it  comes  off  the  cone  its 
extent  of  twist  is  changed.  Take  a  pencil  and  roll  a  strip  of 
paper  around  it.  Then  draw  the  strip  off  the  pencil  endwise 
as  shown  in  Illustration  1.  The  strip  will  have  as  many  twists 
in  it  as  there  were  turns  around  the  pencil  and  the  direction  of 
the  twist  will  depend  on  the  direction  in  which  the  paper  was 
rolled.  Stand  the  pencil  with  its  point  upward,  and  regard  it 
from  the  point.  Then,  as  is  shown,  the  paper  was  wound  anti- 
clockwise, and,  evidently,  the  twist  put  in  the  strip  is  right-hand. 

How  Cones  are  Wound.  —  Now,  yarn  is  generally  wound  on 
cones  as  this  strip  of  paper  was  wound  on  the  pencil,  so  when 
yarn  is  drawn  off  from  the  nose  of  a  cone,  it  is  given  one  right- 
handed  twist  for  every  complete  turn  around  the  cone.  Con- 
sequently, if  the  yarn  already  had  right-hand  twist,  that  is 
increased,  and,  conversely,  if  it  had  left-hand  twist,  that  is 
reduced. 

How  Bobbins  are  Wound.  —  Bottle  bobbins  from  upright 
winders  are  generally  wound  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that 
of  the  cone.  Consequently,  when  yarn  unwinds  from  a  bottle 
bobbin  from  the  ordinary  winder,  left-hand  twist  is  put  into  it 
to  the  extent  of  one  turn  for  every  length  around  the  bobbin. 
If  the  yarn  is  right-hand  twist,  then  that  is  reduced,  whereas 
if  it  is  left-hand  twist,  it  is  increased. 

Illustration  2.  —  Illustration  2  shows  a  bottle  bobbin  and  a 
cone  and  how  the  yarn  unwinds  from  each.  The  arrows  en- 
circling the  yarn  show  the  direction  of  the  twist  which  is  put 
into  the  yarn  by  the  unwinding,  provided  the  free  end  of  the 
yarn  is  kept  from  turning.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  yarn 
near  the  cone  or  bobbin  is  actually  twisted  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion of  that  shown  by  the  arrows.  If  this  is  not  perfectly  clear, 
reference  may  be  made  to  Illustration  1  which  shows  how  the 
yarn  is  twisted  coming  from  the  cone.  The  yarn  coming  from 
the  bobbin  is  twisted  in  the  reverse  direction.  It  should  be 
noted  that  one  turn  of  twist  in  the  yarn  is  made  for  each  com- 
plete turn  of  yarn  around  the  bobbin,  or  cone.  The  average 
diameter  of  these  packages  is  about  four  inches,  so  one  average 
turn  around  the  package  is  roughly  one  foot. 

Feeding  the  Yam  Makes  it  Revolve.  —  Now,  thread  the  yarn 
into  a  machine  with  self-feeding  needles,  such  as  latch-needle 


104 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


machines  for  flat  work,  rib  work  or  hosiery.  It  will  be  found 
that  when  the  yarn  is  running  into  the  needles,  it  revolves  in  the 
direction  in  which  a  corresponding  screw  would  revolve  when 
being  screwed  into  a  piece  of  wood.  In  other  words,  yarn  with 
right-hand  twist  turns  clockwise  when  running  from  the  ob- 
server toward  the  machine,  and  left-hand-twist  yarn  revolves 


Illustralion  2. 


anti-clockwise.  Moreover,  the  rate  of  turning  is  quite  rapid, 
sometimes  amounting  to  one  turn  in  less  than  an  inch  of  the 
yarn  travel. 

Yam  Twist  Most  Important  in  Making  it  Revolve.  —  From 
this  it  is  evident  that  the  influence  of  the  twist  of  the  yarn  itself 
has  much  more  to  do  with  its  revolving  when  entering  the 
machine  than  the  direction  of  its  unwinding  from  the  cone. 

Illustration  of  Yam-feeding  Conditions.  —  The  explanation  of 
this  may  be  determined  by  considering  the  conditions  and  a 
somewhat  similar  case.  The  yarn  is  drawn  into  the  old  loop  at 
the  rate  of  about  five  feet  per  second.  For  a  similar  case,  sup- 
pose a  wire  cable  to  be  inserted  in  a  snugly  fitting  hole  in  a 


Twist  in  Flat  Knit  Fabric  Made  With  Self-feeding  Needles  105 


piece  of  wood  and  then  pulled  through  from  the  farther  side  at 
the  rate  of  five  feet  per  second.  Of  course,  the  cable  would  re- 
volve in  the  direction  dictated  by  its  twist.  That  is,  a  cable 
with  right-hand  twist,  viewed  from  the  entering  side  of  the 
board,  would  revolve  clockwise,  and  one  with  left-hand  twist 
would  revolve  anti-clockwise. 

To  carry  the  illustration  still  further,  suppose  that  instead  of 
drawing  the  cable  through  a  closely  fitting  hole  in  a  board  it  be 


Illustration  3. 


Illustration  of  loop  distortion  caused  by  the  twist  in  the  yarn.  Owing  to 
the  inclination  of  the  fibers,  the  portion  marked  B  slides  forward  in  the 
loop  E  in  front  of  loop  A.  Consequently,  loop  E  is  farther  forward  in  the 
drawing  than  loop  D,  so  that  in  the  fabric  loop  E  is  higher  than  loop  D, 
and  causes  left-hand  twist  in  the  fabric.  Therefore,  the  twist  of  the  fabric 
matches  the  twist  of  the  yarn. 

drawn  through  a  closely  fitting  loop  in  a  rope.  Then  the  rope 
would  tend  to  twist  the  cable  as  just  described. 

Rule  for  Revolution  of  Yarn  in  Feeding.  —  Consequently,  when 
yarn  is  drawn  into  a  stitch,  it  is  revolved  according  to  its  twist. 

Illustration  3  shows  the  influence  of  the  twist  on  the  revolution 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


C.    Loops  obtained  with  right-hand  twist  yarn,  and 
causing  right-hand  twist  fabric. 


Illustration  4. 


Twist  in  Flat  Knit  Fabric  Made  With  Self-feeding  Needles  107 


of  the  yarn  as  it  enters  the  machine.  The  hook  of  the  needle  has 
just  drawTi  a  new  loop  thi-ough  an  old  one.  The  yarn  has  left- 
hand  twist  as  is  shown.  The  part  of  the  loop  which  entered  the 
needles  first  (A)  is  back  of  the  part  which  entered  last  (B),  which 
was  drawn  in  at  a  velocity  of  about  five  feet  per  second  and  had 
to  drag  a  considerable  length  thi'ough  the  old  loop,  whereas  the 
other  side  had  but  little,  if  any,  dragging  to  do.  Close  observation 
will  show  that  the  direction  of  inclination  of  the  strands  of  yarn 
in  both  the  new  loop  and  the  old  one  tlirough  which  it  was  drawn 
tends  to  slide  the  entering  yarn  forward  toward  the  observer,  and 
then  to  revolve  it  as  it  would  a  left-hand  screw  in  entering.  The 
revolving  of  the  yarn  takes  some  of  the  twist  out  of  the  yarn 
which  is  being  looped  and  transfers  it  to  the  yarn  which  is  being 
fed.  The  moving  forward  of  the  entering  yarn  displaces  the 
loops  in  a  way  which  produces  twist  in  the  fabric,  as  will  be  shown. 

Flat-fabric  Twist  caused  by  Revolving  of  Yam  in  Feeding.  — 
It  is  evident  that  B  is  farther  forward  than  A,  but  C  corre- 
sponds to  B,  so  C  is  farther  forward  than  A.  Consequently, 


Illustration  5. 


Plain  flat  knit  fabric  with  right-hand  twist  caused  by  right-hand-twist  yarn. 

when  the  loops  are  turned  upward  as  they  are  seen  in  the  face  of 
the  actual  fabric,  loop  E  will  be  higher  than  loop  D.  That  is, 
with  left-hand-twist  yarn  the  left-hand  needle  loops  are  high- 
est, and,  conversely,  with  right-hand-twist  yam  the  right-hand 
needle  loops  are  highest.  Illustration  4  shows  the  meaning  and 
result  of  having  one  needle  loop  higher  than  the  other.  At  A 
two  adjoining  needle  loops  are  sho^m  in  normal  position.  Fabric 
with  loops  like  this  is  not  twisted  by  the  causes  under  discussion. 


108 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


At  B  the  left-hand  loop  was  liigher  than  the  other  one,  so  if  the 
bases  of  the  loops  are  kept  horizontal  as  shown,  which  corre- 
sponds to  keeping  the  courses  horizontal  in  the  fabric,  then, 
evidently,  the  fabric  has  left-hand  twist.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
right-hand  loop  was  higher  as  at  C,  the  fabric  has  right-hand 
twist.    This  right-hand  twist  is  shown  more  fully  in  Illustration  o. 

Rule  for  Flat-fabric  Twist.  —  From  the  preceding  it  follows 
that  yarn  with  left-hand  twist  produces  fabric  with  left-hand 
twist,  and  yarn  with  right-hand  twist  produces  fabric  with  right- 
hand  twist,  or  the  twist  of  the  fabric  is  like  the  twist  of  the  yarn. 

An  interesting  question  is  how  much,  if  any,  does  the  direction 
of  motion  of  the  machine  afTect  the  tvv^ist  of  either  the  yarn  or  the 
fabric?  Evidently  one  end  of  the  yarn  is  in  the  cloth  and  the 
other  is  in  the  cone.  The  cone  does  not  revolve  with  respect  to 
the  yarn  and  only  in  the  case  of  some  one-ifeed  circular  machines 
does  the  yarn  revolve  with  respect  to  the  cone. 

Effect  of  Machine  Motion  on  Fabric  Twist.  —  A  case  of  this 
kind  is  shown  in  Illustration  6,  which  is  of  a  one-feed  circular 
ribber  in  which  the  cams  revolve  anti-clockwise  (the  conventional 
direction  of  motion  for  such  machines).  Since  the  yarn  enters 
the  hole  in  the  center  of  the  end  of  the  stud  and  comes  out  of  the 
side  of  the  stud,  and  since  the  stud  revolves,  whereas  the  cones 
are  stationary,  it  is  evident  that  for  each  revolution  of  the  machine 
it  must  put  one  turn  of  twist  in  the  yarn.  The  arrow  in  Illustra- 
tion 6  shows  the  direction  of  motion  of  the  machine,  from  which 
it  is  evident  that  the  twist  put  in  the  yarn  is  left-hand. 

Some  Machines  Twist  Yam  Slightly.  —  Consequently,  in  a 
machine  of  this  kind  the  twist  put  in  the  yarn  is  right-hand 
if  the  yarn  carrier  turns  clockwise  and  left-hand  if  it  turns  anti- 
clockwise. This  is  also  true  of  the  ribber  with  dogless  attach- 
ment when  the  cone  does  not  revolve  with  the  yarn  carrier.  In 
general,  it  is  true  of  all  machines  in  which  either  the  carrier 
(3'arn  guide)  or  cone  revolves  in  respect  to  the  other,  i.e.,  in 
machines  in  which  the  cone  is  stationary  and  the  carrier  revolves, 
or  in  machines  in  which  the  carrier  is  stationary  and  the  cone 
revolves. 

Some  Machines  do  not  Twist  Yam.  —  When  both  the  cone 
and  carrier  revolve  together,  as  in  Illustration  7,  then  the  direc- 
tion of  motion  of  the  machine  does  not  afTect  the  twist  of  the  yarn. 
This  comes  under  the  general  rule  that  when  the  cone  and  carrier 
do  not  revolve  with  respect  ^;o  each  other,  then  neither  the 


Illustration  6. 
Type  of  machine  which  twists  yarn. 


(109) 


Illustration  7. 
Type  of  machine  which 
docs  not  twist  yam. 


Twist  in  Flat  Knit  Fabric  Made  With  Self-feeding  Needles  111 

direction  of  motion  of  the  machine  nor  the  relative  motion  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  machine  affect  either  the  twist  of  the  yarn 
or  the  twist  of  the  fabric.  Illustration  7  shows  a  ribber  of  the 
revolving  cam  type  in  which  the  carrier  and  the  cone  are  station- 
ary with  respect  to  each  other,  although  they  both  revolve  with 
respect  to  the  head  base.  The  result  is  the  same  whether  the 
cams  revolve  one  way  or  the  other  or  whether  the  cams  are 
stationary  and  the  needles  revolve  one  way  or  the  other.  This 
is  contrary  to  the  notions  of  some  knitters  and  knitting-machine 
manufacturers  who  advocate  a  particular  direction  of  motion,  or 
a  particular  type  of  machine  on  account  of  alleged  beneficial  action 
on  the  twist  of  the  yarn. 

Machine  Motion  does  not  Determine  Direction  of  Yarn 
Revolution  in  Feeding.  —  The  fallacy  of  these  arguments  may 
be  quickly  shown  by  observing  a  knot  traveling  toward  the 
needles  during  the  making  of  the  heel  or  toe  on  an  automatic 
hosiery  machine.  If  the  yarn  has  right-hand  twist,  the  knot  will 
revolve  clockwise  viewed  from  behind  and  will  continue  to  revolve 
so  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  needles  revolve  first  in  one  direction 
and  then  in  the  other.  This  is  equally  true  whether  the  machine 
be  of  the  revolving  cylinder  type  or  of  the  more  common  revolving 
cam  type. 

Fabric  Twist  Independent  of  Machine  Motion.  —  Regarding 
the  effect  of  the  direction  of  motion  of  the  machine  on  the  twist 
of  the  fabric,  reference  to  Illustration  3  shows  that  it  matters  not 
which  of  the  two  loops  is  formed  first  as  far  as  the  resulting  twist 
in  the  fabric  is  concerned,  for  if  the  right-hand  loop  is  formed 
last,  the  side  of  the  loop  on  the  extreme  right  will  be  drawn  back- 
ward instead  of  forward  toward  the  observer,  so  the  illustration 
holds  true  for  either  case.  Naturally,  a  corresponding  conclusion 
would  apply  to  right-hand-twist  yarn  as  well.  Consequently, 
the  direction  of  motion  of  the  machine  has  no  effect  on  the  twist 
of  the  fabric.  From  this  it  follows  that  it  makes  no  differ- 
ence whether  the  cams  or  the  needles  revolve  with  respect  to  the 
head  base,  since  by  any  combination  only  two  directions  for  the 
formation  of  the  stitch  are  available  and  it  has  just  been  shown 
that  neither  one  of  these  directions  has  any  effect  on  the  twist  of 
the  fabric. 

Minor  Causes  of  Fabric  Twist.  —  However,  it  is  practically 
certain  that  the  take-up  tension,  the  yarn  tension,  the  angle  at 
which  the  yarn  is  fed  and  many  such  details  combine  to  affect  the 


112 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


twist  of  the  fabric  in  ways  and  to  an  extent  which  cannot  readily 
be  generahzed.  Moreover,  the  cause  of  what  httle  twist  there 
is  in  rib  fabric  seems  to  manifest  itself  slightly  in  flat  goods  also. 
This  is  explained  under  the  title  twist  in  rib  fabric,  which  twist  is 
opposite  to  that  of  the  yam  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Conclusion.  —  Consequently,  in  flat  fabric  there  are  generally 
at  least  two  opposite  tendencies;  namely,  the  marked  one  just 

described  which  is  to  twist  in 
the  direction  of  the  yarn  twist, 
and  a  slighter  tendency  to  twist 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Ob- 
servations so  far  indicate  that 
the  former  generally  prevails, 
but  if  it  is  quite  weak,  then  the 
twist  of  the  fabric  becomes  op- 
posite to  that  of  the  j^arn,  but 
there  is  no  inclination  of  the 
wales  accompanying  it.  More- 
over, the  effect  is  generally  so 
slight  as  to  be  unobjectionable. 

TWIST  IN  RIB  FABRIC 

Twist  in  rib  fabric  is  due  to 
a  slight  untwisting  of  the  yarn 
instead  of  to  stitch  distortion. 
If  the  stitch  is  long,  there  is  a 
greater  length  of  yarn  in  it  to 
untwist,  so  the  effect  in  the 
right-hand  twist,  which  tends  to  fabric  is  more  noticeable, 
straighten,  and  to  throw  the  hot-      rpj^^  manner  in  which  the  un- 

tom  of  the  stitch  to  the  right  as    ^    .    .         .  ^,  .     ,  i 

shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  which  twistmg  of  the  yarn  affects  the 
puts  left-hand  t\s-ist  in  the  fabric.      fabric  may  be  understood  by 

considering  one  face  stitch  with 
the  top  or  round  portion  upward  as  in  the  illustration.  The 
two  sides  of  the  loop  lie  approximately  parallel  as  they  enter 
the  next  lower  loop.  Suppose  that  the  twist  of  the  yarn  is 
right-hand.  Then  the  visible  strands  or  fibers  \^^ll  be  incUned 
upward  to  the  right  like  the  threads  of  a  right-hand  screw. 
Consequently,  if  any  of  the  twist  comes  out,  the  bottom  of  the 
stitch  must  turn  to  the  right,  and  every  stitch  in  the  fabric 


Illustration  of  one  effect  of  yarn  twist 
on  rib  fabric  twist.    The  yarn  is 


Summary  Regarding  Twist  of  Knit  Fabrics  113 


twisting  thus  puts  left-hand  twist  in  the  fabric  for  the  wales 
will  then  be  inclined  upward  to  the  left.  In  other  words,  the 
twist  of  the  fabric  is  opposite  to  that  of  the  yarn  composing 
it.  This  can  be  illustrated  nicely  by  running  one  cone  of  left- 
hand-twist  yarn  with  a  set  of  right-hand-twist  yarn.  The 
course  made  by  the  left-hand-twist  yarn  being  distinctly  different 
from  the  other  courses,  produces  the  loop  effect  of  an  improperly 
adjusted  cylinder  stitch  cam,  but  close  examination  will  show 
the  stitches  of  this  course  to  be  twisted  opposite  to  those  of 
the  other  courses. 

Obviously,  the  weaker  the  twist  in  the  yarn  the  slighter  will 
be  the  twist  in  the  fabric,  and  it  can  be  reduced  by  running  to- 
gether two  equal  threads  of  equal  but  opposite  twist. 

SUMMARY  REGARDING   TWIST   OF  KNIT  FABRICS 
General 

The  direction  of  motion  of  the  cylinder  and  the  cams  with  re- 
spect to  each  other  or  with  respect  to  the  head  base  is  immaterial. 

When  the  yarn  carrier  revolves  with  respect  to  the  yarn- 
supply  package,  there  is  a  slight  tendency  to  twist  the  yarn 
right-hand  if  the  motion  of  the  carrier  is  clockwise  and  left-hand 
if  the  motion  is  anti-clockwise,  but  this  tendency  is  so  slight 
that  it  is  negligible,  even  on  very  small-sized  machines  on  which 
it  is  the  greatest. 

The  yarn  is  twisted  in.  coming  from  the  package,  right-hand 
if  unwound  clockwise  and  left-hand  if  unwound  anti-clockwise; 
and  the  extent  of  twist  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  length 
of  one  complete  coil;  but,  at  most,  it  is  insufficient  to  affect 
materially  either  the  yarn  or  the  fabric. 

When  yarn  is  being  drawn  by  a  self-feeding  needle,  it  re- 
volves clockwise  if  the  yarn  twist  is  right-hand  and  anti-clock- 
wise if  left-hand,  and  thereby  transfers  some  of  the  twist  from 
the  yarn  which  is  forming  the  loop  to  the  yarn  which  is  just 
entering.  The  tendency  is  strong  in  hard  yarns  with  well- 
defined  strands.  This  helps  to  account  for  the  persistent  kink- 
ing of  some  yarn  when  running  into  the  machine. 

Rib  Work 

The  revolving  of  the  yarn  in  entering  seems  not  to  affect  the 
twist  of  the  fabric,  but  the  natural  tendency  of  the  yarn  in 
the  loops  to  untwist  makes  rib  fabric  twist  slightly  opposite  to 
the  twist  of  the  yarn. 


114 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Winder  Capacity,  in  Pounds  per  Spindle  per  9  Hours  Actual  Time 


Nutaper,  1250  r.p.m. 


Cotton 

Worsted 

Cut 

Amer. 

Amst. 

Cohoes 

SUk 
dram 

Yarn 

195 

293 

546 

1.17  Y 

1.87  Y 

3.7  Y 

count 

Y 

Y 

Y 

.64  Y 

Y  means  yarn  number 

1.0 

195 

293 

546 

1.9 

3.7 

.6 

1.2 

162 

244 

455 

1.4 

2.2 

4.4 

.8 

1.4 

139 

209 

390 

IS 

2.6 

5.2 

.9 

1.6 

122 

183 

341 

3.0 

5.9 

1.0 

1.8 

108 

163 

303 

2.1 

3.4 

6.7 

1.2 

2.0 

98 

147 

273 

2  3 

3.7 

7.4 

1.3 

2.3 

84 

126 

234 

2.7 

4.4 

8.6 

1.5 

2.7 

•  73 

110 

204 

3.1 

5.0 

9.9 

1.7 

3.0 

65 

98 

182 

3.5 

5.6 

11.1 

1.9 

3.0 

56 

84 

156 

4.1 

6.5 

13.0 

2.2 

4.0 

49 

73 

136 

4.7 

7.5 

14.8 

2.6 

4.5 

43 

65 

121 

5.3 

8.4 

16.7 

2.9 

5 

39 

59 

109 

5.9 

9.4 

18.5 

3.2 

6 

32 

49 

91 

7.0 

11.2 

22 

3.8 

7 

28 

42 

78 

8.2 

13.1 

26 

4.5 

8 

24 

37 

68 

9.4 

15.0 

30 

5.1 

9 

22 

33 

61 

10.5 

16.8 

33 

5.8 

10 

19.5 

29 

55 

11.7 

18.7 

37 

6.4 

11 

17.7 

27 

50 

12.9 

21 

40 

7.0 

12 

16.3 

24 

46 

14.0 

22 

44 

7.7 

13 

15.0 

23 

42 

15.2 

24 

48 

8.3 

14 

13.9 

21 

39 

16.4 

26 

52 

9.0 

15 

13  0 

20 

36 

17.6 

28 

56 

9.6 

16 

10.6 

34 

QH 

oU 

oy 

in  0 

17 

11.5 

17.2 

32 

19.9 

32 

63 

10.9 

18 

10.8 

16  3 

30 

21.1 

34 

67 

11.5 

19 

10.3 

15.4 

29 

22.2 

36 

70 

12.2 

20 

9.8 

14.6 

27 

23.4 

37 

74 

12.8 

21 

8.3 

14.0 

26 

24.6 

39 

78 

13.4 

22 

8.9 

13.3 

25 

25.7 

41 

81 

14.1 

23 

8.5 

12.7 

24 

26.9 

43 

85 

14.7 

24 

8.1 

12.2 

23 

28.1 

45 

89 

15.4 

25 

7.8 

11.7 

22 

29.3 

47 

93 

16.0 

26 

7.5 

11.3 

21 

30.4 

49 

96 

16.6 

27 

7.2 

10.9 

20 

31.6 

51 

100 

17.3 

28 

7.0 

10.5 

19.5 

32.8 

52 

104 

17.9 

29 

6.7 

10.1 

18.8 

33.9 

54 

107 

18.6 

30 

6.5 

9.8 

18.2 

35.1 

56 

111 

19.2 

Allowance  should  be  made  for  lost  time  according  to  the 
quality  of  yarn  and  skill  of  help,  which  vary  so  much  that  a 
general  rule  is  not  given. 


Winder  Capacity 


115 


Capacity  in  Pounds  per  Spindle  of  Upright  Bobbin  Winder,  300  r.p.m.  of 
Main  Shaft,  for  9  Hours  Actual  Time 


Cotton 

Worsted 

Cut 

Amer. 

Amat. 

Cohoes 

Silk 
dram 

Yarn 

166  . 

249 

465 

count) 

Y 

Y 

Y 

YXI 

Yxl.59 

YX3.19 

YX.545 

Y  means  yarn  number 

1.0 

166 

249 

400 

1  .u 

1  ft 
1 . 0 

3 . 2 

.55 

1.2 

138 

207 

388 

1 . 2 

1 . 9 

3.8 

.60 

1.4 

119 

178 

332 

1 . 4 

4 . 5 

.  76 

1.6 

1U4 

156 

291 

1  ft 
1 . 0 

z .  0 

0 . 1 

.  87 

1.8 

00 

loo 

ZOo 

1 . 0 

z .  y 

E  7 
0 .  / 

.98 

2.0 

83 

125 

233 

z  .U 

0 .  z 

6 . 4 

1 .09 

2.3 

71 

1rt7 

ZUU 

z .  0 

Q  7 

7  A 
1  .1 

1 .27 

2.7 

(to 

CiQ 

v6 

1  7/1 
1/4 

0  7 
z .  / 

/I  9 
4  .  Z 

8.0 

1 .45 

3.0 

00 

06 

100 

Q  ft 

i  8 

Q  ft 

y .  0 

1  ft"} 
1  Do 

3.5 

47 

71 

133- 

3 . 5 

0 . 0 

11.2 

1 .91 

4.0 

42 

62 

lift 

110 

4 . 0 

ft  jL 
0 . 4 

1 9  c 

IZ .  8 

9  1 Q 
Z .  18 

4  5 

97 
0/ 

55 

lUo 

4  0 

7  2 

I't .  0 

9  A!^ 
Z  .  10 

5 

oS 

OU 

yo 

0 

8  0 

15  9 

9  79 
Z  .  /Z 

6 

Jo 

42 

7C 

6 

y .  0 

10  1 

ly .  1 

3 . 27 

7 

24 

36 

00 

7 

11  1 

99 
zz 

Q  CI 
0 . 81 

8 

01 

Q1 

oi 

OS 

12  7 

9ft 
ZO 

A 

t .  oO 

9 

1  c 
10 

oz 

Q 

y 

14  3 

9Q 

zy 

A  0 

1 .  y 

10 

1  ft  R 

zo 

47 

1ft 

15  9 

32 

0 . 0 

11 

10 . 1 

42 

17  5 

35 

6  0 

12 

10 . 5 

21 

39 

12 

19  1 

38 

6  5 

13 

iz .  0 

ly .  z 

00 

10 

20 

41 

7  1 
/ .  1 

14 

110 

11  .y 

1 7  c 
1  / .  0 

00 

14 

22 

45 

7  ft 
/ .  0 

15 

1 1  1 

11.1 

10  .  0 

31 

10 

24 

48 

8  2 

16 

10  4 

Ifi  ft 
ID.  U 

29 

16 

25 

51 

8  7 

17 

V .  0 

15  6 

27 

17 

27 

55 

9  3 

18 

Q  0 

lo  .  0 

zo 

1  c 

18 

29 

0< 

Q  8 

y .  8 

19 

a  7 
0 . 1 

1  "J  1 

lo .  1 

25 

1Q 

ly 

30 

fift 

OU 

10  3 

20 

8  1 
0 . 0 

12  5 

23 

20 

32 

64 

10  9 

21 

7  9 

11  9 

22 

21 

33 

67 

11  4 

22 

7.6 

11  3 

21 

22 

35 

70 

14.7 

23 

7.2 

10.8 

20 

23 

37 

74 

12.5 

24 

6  9 

10.4 

19.4 

24 

38 

78 

13.0 

25 

6.6 

10.0 

18.6 

25 

40 

80 

13  6 

26 

6.4 

9.6 

17.9 

26 

41 

83 

14.2 

27 

6.1 

9.2 

,  17.2 

27 

43 

86 

14.7 

28 

5.9 

8.9 

16.6 

28 

45 

89 

15.3 

29 

5.7 

8.6 

16.0 

29 

46 

93 

15.8 

30 

5.5 

8.3 

15.5 

30 

48 

96 

16.3 

32 

5.2 

7.8 

14.5 

32 

51 

102 

17.4 

34 

4.9 

7.4 

13.7 

34 

54 

108 

18.5 

36 

4.6 

6.9 

12.9 

36 

57 

115 

19.6 

38 

4.4 

6.6 

12.2 

38 

60 

120 

20.7 

40 

4.2 

6.2 

11.6 

40 

64 

127 

21.8 

Allowance  should  be  made  for  lost  time  according  to  the 
quality  of  yarn  and  skill  of  help,  which  vary  so  much  that  a 
general  rule  is  not  given. 


116 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


SUMMARY  REGARDING  TWIST  OF  KNIT  FABRICS  — 
CONTINUED 
Flat  Work 

The  revolving  of  the  yarn  in  entering  tends  to  twist  the  fabric 
the  same  as  the  yarn  of  which  it  is  composed.  When  twist 
from  this  cause  does  not  occur,  there  is  generally  a  shght  twist 
opposite  to  the  twist  of  the  yarn,  due  to  the  cause  just  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  rib  work. 

SET 

The  original  underwear  mills  in  America  carded  and  spun  their 
own  yarn,  and  the  size  of  the  mill  was  expressed  by  the  number 
of  sets  of  cards.    A  set  of  machinery  was  considered  to  be: 

1  set  of  cards;  1  mule;  2  spring-needle  knitting  tables,  with 
2  four-feed  cylinders  each,  i.e.  16  flat  feeds  in  all;  prepara- 
tory and  finishing  machinery  to  match,  according  to  the  special 
conditions,  which  were  too  diverse  for  general  classification. 

Soon,  however,  the  use  of  larger  cards,  the  efforts  to  increase 
production,  the  introduction  of  the  latch-needle  machine,  the 
use  of  fine  bought  cotton  yarn  instead  of  mill-spun  woolen 
yarn  —  all  these  and  other  conditions  —  made  the  term  set  as 
applied  to  a  knitting  mill  so  indefinite  that  its  use  decreased. 
However,  there  are  still  many  knitting  mills  which  spin  their 
own  yarn;  and  there  is  much  knitting  information  expressed  in 
the  set  unit,  so  a  knitter  should  know  not  only  what  a  set  is 
but  also  how  much  allowance  to  make  in  the  use  of  it. 

Results  of  quite  extensive  investigations  of  knitting  mills 
making  their  own  yarn  exclusively  or  nearly  so,  on  woolen  cards, 
show  a  set  of  machinery  —  for  48  inches  of  card  width,  either 
actual  or  reduced  from  other  size  cards  —  to  range  as  follows : 

1  set  48-inch  cards;  mule  spindles,  240  to  325;  winder  spindles, 
20  to  40;  flat  feeds,  14  to  25;  sewing  machine  settings,  6  to  12; 
preparatory  machinery,  cufT-knitting  machinery,  and  finishing 
machinery  (other  than  that  mentioned)  to  correspond. 

Among  the  other  machines,  which  cannot  be  classified  by 
the  set  because  one  is  sufficient  for  a  number  of  sets,  may  be 
mentioned  a  press,  a  washer,  and  a  hydro-extractor.  In  ad- 
dition there  are  means  for  final  drying,  such  as  drying  forms  or 
dry  pipes,  brushers,  dyeing  and  bleaching  apparatus,  and  some 


Space  Allotment  in  Knitting  Mills 


117 


less  important  machinery  according  to  the  work  done  and  the 
methods  used. 

The  cost  of  a  set  of  knitting  machinery  is  $10,000,  with  a 
variation  of  30  per  cent  either  way. 

The  cost  of  mill  buildings  per  set  is  $7000,  with  considerable 
variation,  frequently  on  the  low  side,  since  popular  opinion  was 
that  any  kind  of  building  was  good  enough  for  a  knitting  miU. 

The  cost  of  the  site  varies  so  much  that  generalization  can- 
not be  made.  In  some  cases  the  land  is  "  thrown  in  "  as  long 
as  power  is  paid  for. 

The  horse  power  required,  as  is  shown  with  more  detail  else- 
where in  the  book,  is  about  18  per  set.  When  steam  power  is 
used,  the  engine  is  non-condensing,  since  the  exhaust  is  used 
t  for  heating,  washing,  and  drying.  One  hundred  tons  of  coal 
per  set  per  year  will  supply  the  power  and  all  other  heating 
requirements,  if  the  exhaust  is  efficiently  used.  This  includes 
some  live  steam  used  during  severe  weather.  Less  efficient  in- 
stallations increase  the  coal  consumption  as  much  as  25  per 
cent.  When  exhaust  steam  is  not  available  for  heating,  wash- 
ing, and  drying,  about  fifty  tons  of  coal  per  set  are  used  for 
those  purposes.  There  is  opportunity  for  economy  in  the  heat 
and  power  installations  of  knitting  mills. 

It  is  difiicult  to  determine  the  water  requirements,  since  the 
water  used  is  seldom  metered,  but  the  following  record  gives 
an  idea  of  it. 

Large  mill  for  children's  fleeces,  men's  flat  cotton  underwear 
land  ladies'  ribbed  vests;  made  most  of  its  own  yarn,  washed, 
dyed,  and  bleached,  used  steam  power  exclusively,  used  hy- 
draulic elevators,  and  presses,  ran  day  and  night;  paid  3c  per 
1000  gallons  of  water  and  used  1,600,000  gallons  per  set  per 
I  year. 

SPACE  ALLOTMENT  IN  KNITTING  MILLS 

The  figures  are  from  measurements  of  mills  in  commercial 
operation,  and  are  useful  for  guidance  in  designing  new  mills, 
or  for  estimating  on  the  real  estate  charges  in  figuring  the  cost 
[  of  underwear. 

'  The  per  set  figures  are  probably  the  most  useful,  since  they 
afford  means  of  comparison  on  nearly  equal  terms,  as  well  as 
units  for  proportioning  the  space  according  to  the  producing 
capacity  of  the  mill. 


118 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


sno 


aajiog 


doqs 


Sauojg 


Supqslug 


SuiuuTdg 


SuipjBQ 


CO  C5 
OO  lO 


t—  OO 


3[0O')S  MBy^ 


O  (M 


O  <M 
CO  urs 


O  oi" 


•S  .2 

00  OO 


cq  o  Q 


1^05  50  00 

50  O  C<5 

O  -"fl  »-l 
OO 


"5  (M  O 


(M  05 


«5  .-I  (M 


lO  eo  05  »0 

«0  i-i  (M  (M 
«  CO  <M  1-H 


<M  «0 


(M  ■>*<  O  50 


<M  00 

OO  00  05  CO 
«0  iO  CO 


O  O  eo 
Tt<  ^  00  a> 
C<l  (M  «0 


•  o 

CM      •  <M 


^  «3  O  Q 


Space  Allotment  in  Knitting  Mills 


119 


Mill  A  was  built  for  the  manufacture  of  percentage  flat 
goods,  but  was  running  on  men's  fleeces  when  inspected. 

Mill  B  was  built  for  the  manufacture  of  woolen  underwear 
and  still  made  some  in  fine  gauges,  but  the  bulk  of  its  output 
was  men's  cotton  fleeces. 

Mill  C  was  designed  for  making  woolen  underwear,  but  was 
running  exclusively  on  men's  fleeces,  turning  out  from  300  to 
350  dozen  per  day. 

Mill  D  was  designed  for  a  general  variety  of  goods,  and  was 
making  children's  fleeces,  men's  flat  cotton  underwear,  and 
ladies'  ribbed  vests. 

All  of  the  mills  sold  through  commission  houses.  None  of 
them  was  equipped  with  rib  machinery  exclusively;  but  this 
would  not  make  much  difference  in  the  space  allotment,  so  the 
figures  may  be  taken  for  ribbed-underwear  mills  making  their 
own  yarn,  as  well  as  for  flat-goods  mills,  either  woolen  or  cotton. 

Explanation  of  the  per  Set  Allotment 

Storage.  — That  of  mills  A  and  C  was  not  obtained,  but  from 
500  to  1000  square  feet  seems  advisable,  according  to  the 
amount  of  stock  to  be  carried.  Alill  B  had  more  room  than  it 
used. 

Picking.  —  Mill  D  picked  and  garnetted  all  of  its  waste,  and 
had  room  to  spare,  which  accounts  for  its  large  space  allotment. 
None  of  the  other  mills  worked  up  its  own  rag  waste.  Mill  C 
had  more  room  than  it  needed. 

Carding.  —  The  figures  run  close  together,  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  all  of  the  yarn  used  was  not  spun,  so  slightly 
more  yarn-making  space  would  probably  be  desirable  for  a  mill 
making  all  of  its  own  yarn.  In  such  a  case  2000  square  feet  for 
yam  making  is  reasonable,  and  an  approximate  rule  for  dividing 
it  up  into  picking,  carding,  and  spinning  is  as  1  is  to  2  is  to  3. 

Spinning.  —  Alill  C  had  some  spare  room.  See  paragraph  on 
Carding  for  remarks  on  total  yarn  space  which  apply  to  Spinning 
as  well. 

Winding  and  Knitting.  —  Mill  C  was  crowded.  A  fair  al- 
lowance is  600  square  feet  when  flat  cuff  frames  are  used,  and 
500  when  not.  The  proportion  of  winding  to  knitting  space  is 
about  as  1  is  to  2. 

Washing.  —  An  allowance  of  200  is  generally  suflficient. 
Mill  B  had  more  than  was  required. 


120 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


I 


Drying.  —  This  space  depends  on  the  method  or  methods 
used  for  drying,  or  whether  any  is  done  at  all.  In  rare  cases 
washing  and  drying  are  not  done.  In  the  mills  in  question  the 
horizontal-dry-pipe  method  was  used.  Mill  B  has  also  a  drying 
room  for  the  use  of  drying  frames,  which  accounts  for  the  larger 
space  in  that  mill.  When  drying  frames  and  drying  lofts  are 
used  exclusively,  the  space  may  run  as  high  as  1000  square  feet 
and  over,  although  500  is  a  better  average.  The  use  of  drying 
ovens  decreases  the  space  and  heat  needed  for  drying. 

Seaming  and  Finishing.  —  Mill  A  had  waste  room.  A  fair 
division  when  cuff  looping  is  done  is  1  to  2  for  seaming  to 
finishing.  \Mien  looping  is  not  done,  the  proportion  of  seaming 
and  the  total  space  may  be  less.  An  allowance  of  1100  square 
feet  is  fair  average  practice  for  the  total  when  looping  is 
done. 

Napping.  —  This  was  an  afterthought,  since  fleeces  became 
popular  after  these  mills  were  built  and  the  machine  or  machines 
were  generally  put  wherever  convenient.  The  space  for  iVIill 
B  is  too  small,  since  all  of  its  product  was  not  napped.  The 
small  garment  brushers  are  not  included  in  napping.  They 
were  scattered  in  different  places  when  used. 

Packing.  —  All  of  these  allowances  are  large,  and  properly  | 
some  of  each  should  be  classified  as  storage  of  finished  goods,  * 
but  these  two  departments  are  so  closely  connected  that  it  is 
difficult  to  locate  the  dividing  line. 

Storage.  —  This  space  is  excessive,  owing  to  the  facts  that 
Mill  B  had  been  designed  for  a  larger  number  of  sets  than  was 
installed,  and  ^Slill  C  had  been  just  recently  enlarged  but  the 
new  machinery  was  not  yet  in  place.  An  allowance  of  800  square 
feet  is  considered  ample;  600  is  considered  an  average. 

Machine  Shop.  —  This  space  is  generally  limited  by  con- 
venience. 

Office.  —  The  close  relationship  here  shown  to  the  capacity 
is  reasonable  since  all  of  the  mills  had  the  same  method  of  sell- 
ing, and  the  accounting  methods  would  probably  be  much 
alike. 

Boiler.  —  Mill  A  had  waste  room,  and  Mill  D  had  a  com- 
pact battery.    The  average  is  between  the  two. 
Engine.  —  Mill  A  had  waste  room. 

Miscellaneous.  —  The  extent  of  this  is  more  a  matter  of 
accident  than  design. 


Horse  Power  Required  by  Various  Machines  121 


Space  Conclusion 

A  total  allowance  of  7000  square  feet  per  set  of  48-inch  cards 
is  a  fair  average  allowance,  and  4000^  seems  to  be  about  the 
minimum. 

It  will  be  evident  that  there  is  quite  a  divergence  in  the  space 
allowances,  not  only  in  the  departments  but  in  the  mills  as  a 
whole.  This  is  to  be  expected;  since  knitting  as  an  industry  is 
comparatively  new  in  America;  since  the  mills  have  generally 
been  a  growth  from  a  small  original  mill,  often  unsuited  to  the 
purpose;  and  since  the  design  of  knitting  mills  presents  so  many 
perplexing  problems  that  designers  have  not  found  it  profitable 
to  devote  to  it  the  time  necessary  for  its  development.  Al- 
though success  in  the  knitting  business  depends  on  a  great 
many  factors  more  important  than  too  much  or  too  little  space, 
still  the  space  factor  is  overlooked  only  at  expense  which  should 
go  to  profit  and  which  will  ultimately  go  there  when  the  extent 
of  the  loss  is  realized.  Every  100  square  feet  of  floor  space 
costs  about  $10.00  per  year  to  maintain,  which  is  interest  at 
6  per  cent  on  a  capitalization  of  $167.00.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  space  is  insufficient  to  allow  expedition  in  the  conduct  of 
the  business,  or  if  it  is  so  poorly  arranged  as  to  require  more  than 
necessary  hands  to  convey  the  work,  the  cost  mounts  up  quickly. 
Experience  indicates  the  advisability  of  the  use  of  automatic  con- 
veyors more  than  at  present;  passageways  large  enough  to  avoid 
congestion,  but  no  larger;  storage  so  arranged  as  to  be  available 
for  either  raw  stock  or  finished  goods ;  and  room  for  enlargement 
in  at  least  one  direction,  and  preferably  more  than  one. 

HORSE  POWER  REQUIRED  BY  VARIOUS  MACHINES 


USED  IN  KNITTING  MILLS 

Horse  Power 

Picker,  wool  or  bur   4   -  6 

Picker,  rag   7»-9 

(  2  Beater   4   -  6 

Lapper  ]  3  Beater   3  -10.5 

M  Beater   6  -16 

Set  cards   1   -  2 

Mule  spindles  per  100  4-  .7 

Winders,  upright,  say  30  spindles   1 

Hydro  extractor   2    -  4 

Sewing  machines,  5   1 


The  above  is  from  "  Manual  of  Power  "  by  Samuel  Webber, 
published  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  and  other  sources. 


122 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Latch-needle  Rib  Machines 

By  test 

Horse  Power 

Hanger  friction,  including  belts  for  4  body 


machines  or  7  ribbers  273 

Body  machine,  9  feed,  without  shafting  .  .  .443 
"        "  "      with  shafting  and 

motor  546  (One  motor  to 

about  50  body 
machines) 

Ribber,  2  feed,  without  shafting  31 

"         "     with  shafting  and  motor..    .394  (One  motor  to 

50  ribbers) 

Winder,  40  spindle,  without  shafting  44 

40    "      with  shafting  713 


Details  are  as  follows:  Knitting  machines,  Wildman,  running 
at  about  800  dia.  r.p.m,;  shafting,  lyf"  dia.,  running  at  340 
r.p.m.;  hanger  bearings,  8"  X        babbitted  and  with  ring  oilers. 


POWER  FOR  KNITTING  MILLS 


Results  in  indicated  horse  power  of  tests  in  two  mills  making  men's  cotton 
fleeced  underwear  and  making  their  backing  yarn  on  wool  cards. 


3  Sets  48-in. 

I 

10.5  Sets  48-in. 

cards 

cards 

Total 

Per  set 

Total 

Per  set 

14.97 

5 

86.75 

8.25 

Average  load  including  shafting  

39.4 

13.1 

127.6 

12.15 

50.2 

16.7 

210.3 

20 

Average  machinery  load  less  belted  shaft- 

ing load  

24.43 

8.15 

85.85 

8.17 

Full  machinery  load  less  belted  shafting 

35.23 

11.75 

123.55 

11.75 

Power  for  Knitting  Mills  123 


Generalization  of  Above 


Average 

Full 

Mill  with  less  than  5  sets  48-in.  cards: 
Machinery  load  without  shafting  

8.15 
5 

11.75 
5 

13.15 

16.75 

Mill  with  5  or  more  sets  48-in.  cards: 

Machinery  load  without  shafting  

8.15 

11.75 

8.25 

8.25 

Total  load  

16.40 

20.00 

Subsequent  information  from  other  mills  confirms  the  above, 
except  that  for  general  practice  in  mills  of  say  8  sets  or  over,  18 
indicated  horse  power  per  set  is  nearer  the  average  total  load. 


Spring-needle  Loop-wheel  Knitting  Machines 

Delivered  horse  power  to  run  circular  spring-needle  loop-wheel  knitting 
machines,  averaging  6^  feeds  per  cylinder,  26-gauge  cotton  flat  work,  1200  diame- 
tral revolutions  per  minute. 


110  cyls. 

Per  cyl. 

Per  table 

f  with  shafting  

33 

.30 

.60 

shafting  alone  overhead 

110  cylinders' 

and  under  tables  14 
to  16  

15 

.14 

.27 

without  above-men- 

^    tioned  shafting  

18 

.16 

.33 

Proportionate  Distribution  of  Power  in  a  Knitting  Mill  Making  Its  Own  Yarn 


Winding  

Knitting  (including  rib  cuffs  and  borders) 

Seaming  

Finishing  

Washing  

Yarn  making  


Per  cent 
horse  power 


6.1 
22 

6.6 
12 

4.5 
48.8 
100.0 


124 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


RELATION  OF  MACHINE  GAUGE  AND  CUT 

The  term  cut  is  used  to  designate  the  needle  spacing  of  circu- 
lar latch-needle  machines,  generally  with  the  number  of  cylinder 
needles  per  inch,  measured  on  the  circumference  of  the  cylinder. 
A  12-cut  machine  has  twelve  cylinder  needles  per  inch  of  the 
outside  cylinder  circumference  generally  measured  on  the  cam 
surface.  The  dial  needles  are  not  involved.  For  instance,  the 
12-cut  machine  might  have  a  dial  cut  to  match  the  cylinder,  or 
cut  half  as  fine,  or  have  no  dial  at  all.  Such  details  are  de- 
scribed in  other  ways  than  by  the  general  word  cut.  This  is 
reasonable  since  only  one  side  of  the  cloth  is  seen  at  a  time  — 
generally  the  face  or  cylinder  side  —  and  the  fineness  of  the 
cloth  is  judged  by  the  number  of  wales  per  inch  (or  other  unit) 
made  on  the  cylinder  needles.  The  use  of  dial  needles  does  not 
necessarily  change  this  number  of  wales,  since  the  dial  stitches 
lie  back  of  the  cj'linder  stitches  instead  of  between  them. 

The  term  gauge  is  used  to  designate  the  needle  spacing  of 
spring-needle  machines,  generally  in  connection  with  the  num 
ber  of  needles  per  inch-and-one-half  of  the  needle  line.  An 
18-gauge  machine  has  18  needles  per  inch-and-one-half  of  the 
needle  line,  whether  curved  or  straight,  or  whether  with  one  or 
two  sets  of  needles. 

Evidently  an  inch-and-a-half  is  one-half  greater  than  an 
inch,  so  gauge  is  one-haK  greater  than  corresponding  cut,  e.g. 
12  cut  and  18  gauge  stand  for  the  same  number  of  needles  per 
inch. 


This  applies  to  the  fabric  as  well  as  to  the  machine;  but 
spring-needle  fabric  is  generally  wider  than  latch-needle  fabric 
made  with  the  same  number  of  needles  per  inch,  since  heavier 
yarn  is  generally  used  on  spring-needle  machines. 

The  relation  of  the  yarn  numbers  for  different  machines  may 
be  determined  by  comparison  of  their  respective  yarn  formulas. 

For  latch-needle  circular  rib  machines 


Therefore, 


Cut  =  Gauge  X  ^  » 
and  Gauge  =  Cut  X  7^  • 


Yarn  = 


(Cllt)2 

6 


(1) 


Gauge  125 
For  spring-needle  circular  loop-wheel  machines 

Yarn  =  '■^S^.  (2) 

For  machines  with  the  same  number  of  needles  per  inch 

Gauge  =  Cut  X  • 

Substituting  this  value  for  gauge  in  (2), 


7  (Cut)2 


Yarn  =               =             =  Cut«. 
Yarn=^  (3) 


160 

Dividing  (1)  by  (3) 


Cut2 


Yarn  for  latch-needle  rib  fabric  _  6  _  160  _  2  95  sa  3 
Yam  for  spring-needle  flat  fabric     9  Cut^      54       *  ' 


Therefore  the  number  of  the  yarn  for  latch-needle  rib  machines 
is  three  times  the  number  for  spring-needle  flat-work  machines 
having  the  same  number  of  needles  per  inch.  If  10  yarn  is  right 
on  21  gauge,  30  yarn  will  be  right  on  14  cut.  That  is,  the 
diameter  of  the  yarn  is  about  1.73  greater  for  spring-needle  flat- 
work  machines  than  for  latch-needle  rib  machines. 


GAUGE 
Different  Standards 


The  table  gives  the  number  of  needles  per  English  inch  for 
the  gauge  given  in  the  extreme  left-hand  column.  For  in- 
stance, 


126 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


18-gauge  in 

French,  coarse 
French,  fine 
Saxon 

EngUsh,  spHt 
English,  sohd 
EngUsh,  three  needle 
American,  New  England 
Viennese 


is  needles  per 
EngUsh  inch 


10.98 
16.46 
19.38 

6.00 
12.00 
18.00 

9.00 
17.39 


Needles  per  English  Inch 


Ga. 


French 


Gros. 


2.439 
3.049 
3.659 
4.268 
4.878 
5.488 
6.098 
6.707 
7.317 
7.927 
8.537 
9.146 
9.756 
10.37 
10.98 
11.58 
12.20 
12.80 
13.41 
14.02 
14.63 
15.24 
15.85 
16  46 
17.07 
17.68 
18.29 


Fin. 


15.55 
16.46 
17.38 
18.29 
19.21 
20.12 
21.04 
21.95 
22.93 
23.78 
24.70 
25.61 
26.52 
27.44 
28.35 
29.27 
30.18 
31.10 
32.01 


Saxon 


4.306 
5.382 
6.458 
7.535 
8.611 
9.688 
10.76 
11.83 
12  92 
13.99 
15.07 
16.15 
17.22 
18.30 
19.38 
20.45 
21.53 
22.61 
23.68 
24.76 
25.83 
26.91 
27.99 
29.06 
30.14 
31.22 
32.29 


English 


Split 


1.333 
1.667 
2 

2.333 
2.667 
3 

3.333 
3.667 
4 

4.333 
4.667 


6.333 
6.667 
7 

7.333 
7.667 
8 

8.333 
8.667 
9 

9.333 
9.667 
10 

10.333 
10.667 
11 

11.333 

11.67 

12 

12.333 
12.667 
13 

13.333 


SoUd 


3  Needle 


2.667 
3.333 
4.000 
4.667 
5.333 
6.000 
6.666 
7.330 
8.000 
8.666 
9.333 
10.00 
10.67 
11.33 
12.00 
12.67 
13.33 
14.00 
14.67 
15.33 
16.00 
16.67 
17.33 
18.00 
19.07 
19.33 
20.00 
20.67 
21.33 
22.00 
22.67 
23.33 
24.00 
24.67 
25.33 
26.00 
26.67 


A.Dierican 

len- 

New 

nese 

England 

2 

3.865 

2.5 

4.830 

3 

5.797 

3.5 

6.763 

4 

7.729 

4.5 

8.695 

5 

9.662 

5.5 

10.63 

6 

11.59 

6.5 

12.56 

7 

13.53 

7.5 

14.49 

8 

15.46 

8.5 

16.43 

9 

17.39 

9.5 

18.36 

10 

19.32 

10.5 

20.29 

11 

21.25 

11.5 

22.22 

12 

23.19 

12.5 

24.15 

13 

25.12 

13.5 

26.09 

14 

27.05 

14.5 

28.02 

15 

28.98 

15.5 

29.95 

16 

30.92 

16.5 

31.88 

17 

32.85 

17.5 

18 

18.5 

19 

19.5 

20 

Gauge 


127 


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128 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


NEEDLES  PER  INCH  OF  HOSIERY  MACHINES  AND  RIBBERS 
MEASURED  FROM  BACK  TO  BACK  OF  NEEDLES 

The  cut  or  number  of  needles  per  inch  of  these  machines  is 
not  much  used,  but  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  and  the  total 
number  of  needles  is  given  instead  to  convey  an  idea  of  the 
fineness  of  the  machine.  Those  who  are  not  sufficiently  familiar 
with  such  machinery  to  form  a  fair  idea  of  the  fineness  from 
this  information  have  to  consult  tables,  which  are  given  in 
some  machine  catalogues,  or  have  to  work  out  the  cut  by  divid- 
ing the  number  of  needles  by  3.14  and  then  by  the  diameter. 
But  since  the  division  is  generally  shirked,  since  the  tables  are 
not  always  handy,  and  since  comparatively  few  can  remember 
the  cuts  for  a  wide  range  of  sizes  and  needles,  there  is  a  general 
impression  that  it  is  possible  to  get  along  without  knowing  the  cut. 
This  impression  is  correct  where  experience  and  experiment  are 
satisfactory  guides,  but  it  is  impossible  to  establish  a  scientific  basis 
of  reckoning  without  knowledge  of  the  cut  or  the  needle  spacing. 

The  following  table  shows  a  simple  and  rememberable  method 
of  quickly  calculating  the  cut  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  all 
practical  purposes. 

Dia.  of  cyl.  21     2\    2|       3       3i     31    3f      4     41  4^ 
.14    .13  .\\\  .101    .10    .09  .081  .08  .071  .07 

Multiply  the  number  of  cylinder  needles  by  the  number  under 
the  diameter  and  the  result  will  be  the  cut. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  bother  with  the  decimal  point  since  the 
cuts  generally  range  from  3  to  20  so  confusion  cannot  occur. 
For  instance,  a  3|-186-needle  machine  is  one  of  the  following 
cuts,  because  the  rule  says  multiply  by  ten,  1.86,  18.6  or  186: 
but  since  1.86  cut  is  infrequent  and  since  186  cut  is  absui'd,  the 
result  to  take  must  be  18.6.  Accurately,  the  cut  is  18.2.  The 
error  due  to  the  use  of  the  quick  rule  is  2  per  cent  on  this  size, 
3|,  and  on  the  2\  inch  also.  For  the  other  sizes  the  error  is 
1  per  cent  or  under. 

The  table  in  the  middle  of  page  129  gives  examples  worked  out 
by  short  cuts. 

For  the  other  sizes  there  is  not  much  advantage  to  be  gained 
by  the  use  of  shorter  cuts  than  the  multipliers  given. 

These  diameters  are  from  back  to  back  of  needle.  If  the 
cam-surface  diameter  is  used,  take  the  multiplier  of  the  next 
smaller  size,  which  will  give  the  cut  as  closely  as  is  generally 


Yarn  for  Loop- wheel  Machines 


129 


iquired.  For  instance,  what  is  the  cut  of  a  160-needle  ma- 
hine  4|  inches  in  diameter  on  the  cam  surface?  The  multi- 
Uer  for  the  next  smaller  size,  4|,  is  7|,  which  gives  12  cut. 


'he  actual  cut  is  12.15. 


Dia. 

Needles 

Multi- 
plier 

Solution 

Actual 
cut 

Error 

2j 

126 

Hi 



126 

Add  126,  one-tenth 
Add     63,  half  of  one-tenth 
1449 

14.5 

-0.006 

3 

148 

148 

Add    74,  half  of  one-tenth 
1554 

15.7 

-.0104 

136 

10 

136 

13.2 

-1-.021 

\ 

128 

9 

128  f 

Subtract  128,  one-tenth 
11.52 

11.56 

-.0104 

146 

8i 

146 

Subtract  146,  one-tenth 
1314 

Subtract    73,  half  of  one-tenth 
1241 

12.4 

+  .0013 

4 

214 

8 

214 

Subtract  428,  one-fifth 
1712 

17 

+  .0053 

41- 

138 

7k 

138 

Subtract    345,  one-quarter 
l035 

10.3 

+  .0013 

Yam  for  Loop-wheel  Machines 


jtauge 

Light 

Average 

Maximum 

Gauge 

Light 

Average 

Maximum 

8 

2.1 

1.6 

1.1 

26 

22.0 

17.0 

11.0 

10 

3.3 

2.5 

1.7 

28 

26.0 

20.0 

13.0 

12 

4.8 

3.6 

2.4 

30 

30.0 

22.0 

15.0 

14 

6.5 

4.9 

3  3 

32 

34.0 

26.0 

17.0 

16 

8.5 

6.4 

4  3 

34 

38.0 

28.0 

19.0 

18 

11.0 

8.0 

5.4 

36 

44.0 

32.0 

22.0 

20 

13.0 

10.0 

6.7 

38 

48.0 

36.0 

24.0 

22 

16.0 

12.0 

8.1 

40 

54.0 

40.0 

26.0 

24 

19.0 

14.0 

9.6 

1 

130  The  Science  of  Knitting 


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Cuts  for  Different  Diameters  and  Slots 


137' 


'  138  The  Science  of  Knitting 


Range  of  Fabrics  from  the  Same  Gauge  or  Cut 


1  2 


Attention  has  been  called  elsewhere  to  the  fact  that  the  width 
of  the  wale  and,  consequently,  the  w^dth  of  the  fabric  are  pro- 
portional to  the  diameter  of  the  yam.  Since  this  may  seem 
questionable  in  view  of  the  general  impression  that  the  cut  is 
important  in  the  determination  of  the  width  of  the  wale  and  of 
the  fabric,  the  above  illustrations  are  given  of  two  fabrics  made 
on  the  same  cut,  namely  14,  but  with  different  sizes  of  3'arn,  and 
different  lengths  of  stitch.  Xo.  1  is  made  on  a  spring-needle 
jack-sinker  machine,  which  is  adaptable  to  heavj"  yarn;  whereas 
No.  2  is  made  on  a  latch-needle  rib  machine,  for  which  Ught  yarn 
is  suitable.  The  fact  that  the  fine  sample  is  made  on  a  rib 
machine  does  not  make  the  comparison  unfair,  for  although 
there  are  in  the  machine  28  needles  to  the  inch,  counting  cylinder 
and  dial,  the  fabric  is  no  finer  than  it  would  be  if  it  were  knit 
flat  with  14  needles  to  the  inch,  since  the  stitches  from  the  dial 
needles  lie  on  the  back  of  the  fabric,  and,  consequently,  cannot 
be  seen.  It  is  obvious  therefore  that  determinations  of  the 
needle  spacing,  or  the  gauge,  from  the  spacing  of  the  wales  may 
be  entirely  misleading. 

YARN  FOR  FLAT  COTTON  FLEECED  GOODS 
Gauges  20  to  28  Inclusive 

Since  three  threads  per  feed  are  used  in  making  ordinary 
fleeces  and  since  the  relations  of  these  threads  are  not  standard- 
ized, but  rather  are  determined  by  the  equipment  of  the  mill, 


Yarn  for  Flat  Cotton  Fleeced  Goods 


139 


by  the  weights  of  garment  called  for  by  the  trade,  and  by  other 
conditions  foreign  to  the  actual  knitting,  the  following  tabula- 
tion is  given  of  combinations  of  yarns  used  in  actual  practice 
by  representative  knitting  mills,  and  yarns  obtained  by  rules 
which  agree  closely  with  the  best  practice. 


Yarn  for  Flat  Cotton  Fleeced  Goods 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

] 

XGauge 

Face 

Binder 

Backing 

Backing  by 

rule  — 
9 

Com- 
bined 
face 

Combined 
face  by 

rule  — 
40 

20 
22 
22 
22 
22 
24 
24 
24 
26 
28 

20 
22 
22 
22 
26 
26 
26 
22 
28 
30 

30 
30 
30 
30 
26 
30 
30 
30 
28 
60 

5.00 
5.47 
6.00 
5.20 
7.70 
5.50 
6.50 
6.12 
6.50 
9.45 

4.45 
5.38 
5.38 
5.38 
5.38 
6.40 
6.40 
6.40 
7.50 
8.70 

12.0 
12.7 
12.7 
12.7 
13. 0 
13.9 
13.9 
12.7 
14.0 
20.0 

10.0 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
14.4 
14.4 
14.4 
16.9 
19.6 

Columns  1,  2,  3  and  4  show  the  actual  practice.  The  stitches 
per  foot  of  yarn  and  the  weights  per  dozen  were  not  obtained, 
or  when  obtained,  were  rejected  owing  to  incompleteness  or 
inaccuracy.  Indeed,  the  weight  per  dozen  is  unsatisfactory 
without  information  as  to  how  many  square  yards  of  fabric 
make  up  the  dozen. 

Column  5  gives  the  number  of  the  backing  yarn  obtained  by 

the  rule  Cotton  number  of  backing  yarn  =  ^^^^^  ,  which  rep- 
resents the  average.  The  constant  for  practical  extremes 
ranges  from  6  to  10.5.  Consequently,  if  the  heaviest  advisable 
backing  is  desired,  divide  the  square  of  the  gauge  by  10.5.  This 
is  not  to  be  taken  as  the  heavy  limit,  but  it  is  inadvisable  to 
attempt  to  use  heavier  yarn  commercially  without  trying  it  on 
the  machine.  The  backing  yarn  is  generally  made  in  the  knitting 
mill,  where  it  is  customary  to  number  it  in  grains  or  in  some 
other  number  than  the  cotton  number.  Simple  rules  for  trans- 
formations into  the  standards  used  are  given  elsewhere. 


140 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Column  6  gives  the  single-thread  equivalent  of  the  face  and 
binder  actually  used. 

Column  7  gives  the  regular  single  thread  for  the  gauge. 

The  similarity  of  Columns  6  and  7  is  marked.  It  is  also 
noticeable  that  the  face  thread  used  is  the  same  as  the  gauge,  or 
very  nearly  so;  consequently,  a  rough  rule /or  the  range  of  gauges 
given  is  to  make  the  face  thread  the  same  as  the  gauge,  use  a 
binder  about  number  30  or  under,  and  use  gauge  squared  divided 
by  9  for  the  backing,  varied,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  desired  weight  after  it  is  known  what  weight  the  above 
combination  gives.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  change  in 
weight  in  the  backing  should  be  proportionally  twice  that  de- 
sired in  the  goods,  since  the  backing  constitutes  only  half  of 
the  fabric  by  weight. 

For  gauges  other  than  those  given  above,  the  same  rule  for 
backing  will  probably  hold;  but  for  the  face  yarn  it  is  advisable 
to  derive  the  equivalent  single  face  yarn  by  the  rule:  Cotton 
number  equals  gauge  squared  divided  by  40,  and  then  split  the 
face  into  two  threads  of  which  the  binder  should  be  the  lighter. 
This  division  into  the  two  threads  is  readily  done  by  those  who 
can  reverse  the  rule  that  the  single  equivalent  thread  equals 
the  product  of  the  two  divided  by  their  sum,  but  those  who  are 
not  familiar  with  such  operations  may  use  the  table  given  else- 
where of  the  single  equivalent  of  two  yarns. 

SINKER  BUR 

The  sinker  bur  is  an  angular  gear  having  for  teeth  tempered 
steel  blades  with  a  slight  hook,  called  a  nib,  for  controlling  the 
yarn  during  the  operation  of  pushing  it  between  the  needles 
and  up  under  the  beards.  The  bur  body  is  generally  made  of 
bronze  to  facilitate  cutting,  and  is  provided  with  a  hardened 
steel  bushing  to  insure  against  sticking,  to  provide  for  long 
wear  and  to  enable  replacement. 

The  blades  are  radial  and  straight  (plane),  so  the  length  of 
stitch  is  limited;  therefore  good  design  and  adjustment  are  neces- 
sary for  good  running.  Moreover,  they  are  not  adjustable,  so 
the  operator  has  no  choice  regarding  the  spacing  of  the  blades. 

The  operator  can  adjust  the  bur  in  and  out,  also  up  and  down, 
can  rotate  it  on  a  horizontal  axis,  and  can  generally  throw  the 
top  of  the  bur  in  or  out  of  the  needles  with  respect  to  the  bottom 
of  the  bur  to  a  slight  extent. 


Sinker  Bur 


141 


The  bur  bends  the  needles  backward  with  the  reaction  of 
being  driven,  and  pushes  the  needles  inward  with  the  reaction 
of  feeding  the  yarn.  If  the  needles  are  displaced  backward  too 
far,  the  bur  over-reaches  and  the  blades  get  in  under  the  beards, 
which  causes  serious  trouble.  If  the  inward  bend  of  the  needles 
were  slight  and  constant,  no  trouble  would  result;  but  it  is  not 
constant  because  it  depends  on  the  push  of  the  yarn,  which  in- 
creases with  increase  of  yarn  diameter  or  increase  of  tension  and 
vice  versa.  Consequently  there  is  always  some  variation  in  the 
inward  bend  of  the  needle,  since  the  yarn  tension  is  never  con- 
stant, and  since  the  diameter  is  seldom  uniform  except  in  the 
very  best  yarn.  Evidently,  inward  bending  of  the  needle 
shortens  the  length  of  the  loop  drawn,  in  proportion  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  bending,  and  makes  cloudy  fabric.  This  inward  bend 
of  the  needle,  which  causes  defective  fabric,  and  this  backward 
bend,  which  causes  broken  needles  and  other  waste,  are  the 
two  most  serious  objections  to  the  loop-wheel  machine;  and 
together  do  much  to  offset  its  advantages  of  high  speed,  dura- 
bility and  adaptability  to  change  of  size,  gauge  and  kind  of 
work.  Moreover,  there  is  the  still  further  disadvantage  that  a 
poorly  designed  or  improperly  adjusted  sinker  aggravates  the 
troubles  just  mentioned. 

The  diameter  of  the  sinker  bur  should  not  be  greater  than  is 
necessary  to  enable  driving  it  with  security  and  still  to  get 
the  yarn  surely  under  the  needle  beard  and  leave  the  loop  fully 
drawn  in  the  head  of  the  needle.  There  are  different  opinions 
as  to  how  far  below  the  point  of  the  beard  the  yarn  should 
begin  to  draw  the  loop.  If  a  low  point  is  selected,  the  drawing 
is  facilitated  by  the  round  shank  of  the  needle;  but  a  low  point 
needs  a  large  bur,  which  increases  the  number  of  loops  drawn 
at  a  time,  and  increases  the  backward  bend  of  the  needle.  If 
the  drawing  of  the  loop  is  begun  well  up  toward  the  point  of  the 
beard,  the  diameter  of  the  bur  must  be  less,  but  there  are  the 
disadvantages  of  drawing  over  the  needle  eye,  which  extends 
down  a  little  way  below  the  point  of  the  beard;  the  possibility 
of  splitting  the  yam  on  the  point  of  the  beard,  which  causes  a 
partial  tuck;  and  the  possibility  of  feeding  it  up  over  the  beard, 
which  causes  drop  stitches  or  a  press-off.  Evidently  with  a 
short  stitch,  the  diameter  of  the  bur  must  be  large  in  order  to 
have  enough  blades  in  mesh  for  secure  driving,  and  in  order  to 
obtain  sufficient  lift  for  the  yarn.    On  the  other  hand,  for  a 


142 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


deep  stitch  a  small  diameter  is  advisable,  since  the  lift  is  in- 
creased by  sinking  the  bur  deeper,  and  since  a  large  bur  would 
put  so  many  blades  in  mesh  that  it  would  cramp  itself.  Con- 
sequently, the  length  of  stitch  to  be  run  has  much  to  do  with 
determining  the  diameter. 

Theoretically,  the  blades  should  be  helical,  so  that  when  in 
mesh  they  would  be  nearly  parallel  to  the  needles.  English 
sinker  burs  with  soldered  blades  are  sometimes  made  this  way 
by  bending  the  exposed  portion  of  the  blade,  but  since  such 
bending  is  practically  impossible  with  the  well-tempered  blades 
called  for  by  American  practice,  and  since  the  cutting  of  narrow 
helical  slots  and  bending  of  blades  to  correspond  is  not  deemed 
practical,  helical  blades  are  not  used  in  American  practice.  Con- 
sequently, a  part  of  the  freedom  of  the  bur  in  the  needles  is 
lost  through  the  difference  of  inclination  of  the  blades  in  mesh. 
From  this  it  follows  that  the  action  of  the  bur  in  the  needles  may 
be  made  freer  by  reducing  the  vertical  height  in  the  needles, 
which  may  be  done  by  bending  the  sinker  bur  bracket  upward 
in  machines  where  flexible  brackets  are  used,  or  by  packing  the 
sinker  stand  outward  where  no  such  provision  is  made. 

However,  there  is  an  objection  to  reducing  too  much  the  verti- 
cal height  of  the  ^blade  in  mesh,  since  this  reduction  increases 
the  danger  of  over-reaching;  as  is  seen  from  consideration  that 
the  bur,  although  like  a  gear,  has  a  large  amount  of  back  lash 
(play,  in  the  needles)  as  compared  to  a  gear.  This  back  lash  is 
reduced  by  tipping  the  bur  so  that  the  tops  of  the  blades  are 
inclined  backward  with  respect  to  the  motion  of  the  needles. 
This  tipping  brings  the  rounded  part  of  the  blade  where  it  will 
strike  the  approaching  needle  in  case  of  a  pull  back,  and  will 
help  to  keep  the  bur  in  mesh,  instead  of  allowing  the  nib  of  the 
bur  to  over-reach  and  shear  off  a  needle  beard,  in  which  case  it 
is  likely  to  continue  to  over-reach  until  the  machine  is  stopped 
and  the  bur  is  reset.  If  the  blade  has  insufficient  vertical  depth 
in  the  needles,  the  bur  cannot  be  tipped  enough  for  secure 
running.  This  gives  a  clue  to  one  of  the  most  important  points 
in  setting  a  sinker.  That  is,  that  the  shoulder  of  the  blade 
should  enter  near  the  approaching  needle,  whereas  the  nib  of 
the  blade  should  enter  near  the  passed  needle,  when  the  bur  is 
set  at  the  required  depth.  It  is  advisable  to  try  this  before 
putting  in  the  yarn  as  well  as  after. 

When  this  requirement  is  met,  the  nib  should  leave  the  loops 


Sinker  Bur 


143 


in  the  heads  of  the  needles  and  should  retire  without  pulling  the 
loops  and  without  touching  the  needles.  If  it  does  snap  the 
needle  on  either  side,  the  loop  is  almost  sure  to  twist  or  drop 
and  moreover  to  make  rough  work,  by  the  formation  of  unequal 
stitches. 

'  It  is  well  to  adjust  the  bur  and  run  the  machine  without  yarn 
or  cloth  in  order  to  observe  the  action  of  the  bur,  which  should 
run  uniformly  without  grating  the  needles,  without  bucking  them 
as  the  blades  enter,  without  rippling  them  as  the  nibs  retire  and 
with  but  slight  bowing  action  opposite  the  center  of  the  bur.  If 
the  shoulder  bucks  the  needles,  the  bur  may  be  too  coarse,  or 
the  top  may  be  tipped  backward  too  far.  If  it  bows  the  needles 
too  much,  it  is  said  to  be  gathering  them,  i.e.,  pinching  them 
together.  This  is  undesirable,  since  the  yarn,  cannot  be  fed 
freely,  so  that  weak  places  are  Hkely  to  part  at  the  sinker  and 
knots  are  likely  to  catch,  either  of  which  often  breaks  the  yarn. 
If  the  needles  are  rippled  by  the  retiring  nibs,  the  indication  is 
either  that  the  bur  is  coarse  and  is  pushing  the  leaving  needle 
forward,  or  that  the  bur  is  fine  and  is  holding  back  the  oncoming 
needle.  This  last  fault  is  worse  than  the  first,  since  if  the  bur 
is  tight  without  the  yarn,  it  will  be  still  tighter  when  it  is  feeding 
the  yarn,  because  the  considerable  force  required  to  draw  the 
loop  has  to  be  transmitted  by  the  flexible  needles,  which  bend 
backward  some,  and  so  permit  the  leaving  nib  to  "  pick  "  the 
oncoming  needle  still  more;  whereas  if  the  leaving  nib  is  pushing 
ahead  slightly  when  it  is  running  without  yarn,  it  may  be  drawn 
back  into  its  proper  position  when  the  yarn  is  being  fed. 

If  the  bur  runs  properly  without  the  yarn,  it  should  then  be 
tried  with  the  yarn,  either  when  the  cloth  is  not  on  the  machine, 
by  turning  the  cylinder  by  hand,  or  by  trying  it  with  the  cloth 
and  power  on.  This  depends  on  the  skill  and  experience  of  the 
operator  and  on  the  yam  and  stitch  used.  Some  adjusters  use 
a  magnifying  glass  and  make  exhaustive  tests  before  putting  on 
the  power.  Others,  especially  with  light  yarn,  will  put  a  sinker 
on  the  stud,  throw  on  the  power,  and  make  all  adjustments  with 
the  machine  running  at  full  speed.  The  best  way  is  undoubtedly 
to  set  the  bur  as  carefully  as  possible  before  the  power  is  on, 
make  sure  that  it  forms  the  loop  freely  and  properly  and  then 
observe  it  when  it  is  run  with  power.  The  action  of  the  needles 
in  mesh  should  be  noted  by  inspection  from  above  their  heads. 
They  will  bow  inward  more  than  when  the  bur  was  running  free 


144 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


and  the  extent  of  the  bowing  will  fluctuate  according  to  the 
tension  on  the  yarn  and  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  its  diameter. 
But  the  general  shape  of  the  needle  line  in  the  bur  should  not 
change  to  a  considerable  extent.  If  it  does  so,  becoming  almost 
angular  at  times,  then  there  is  a  cramping  action  which  should 
be  eliminated  if  possible. 

There  are  many  causes  for  this  violent  pushing-inward  of  the 
needle.  The  yarn  has  to  be  dragged  over  the  blades  and  around 
the  shanks  of  the  needles  with  a  velocity  which  varies  from  one 
and  one-half  times  that  of  the  needles,  at  the  entrance  of  the  yarn, 
to  zero  velocity  when  the  loop  is  fully  drawn.  The  extent  of  the 
dragging,  sliding,  and  rubbing  is  seldom  realized.  But  some 
conception  of  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  understand  how  to 
reduce  it. 

The  edges  of  the  blades  may  be  too  sharp.  Theoretically,  they 
should  be  half  round,  but  practically  they  are  not  so,  since  in  the 
punching  one  edge  is  slightly  rounded  and  the  other  is  left  with 
a  sharp  fin.  In  the  subsequent  tumbling  the  already  rounded 
edge  becomes  still  more  rounded,  but  the  sharpened  edge  does  not 
always  get  enough  tumbling  to  bring  it  into  proper  shape.  Con- 
sequently, even  when  the  edge  is  smooth,  it  may  be  angular 
enough  to  retard  the  yarn  unduly  and  thus  increase  the  work  of 
sinking  the  loop.  If  in  addition  to  this  the  roughness  is  not  taken 
off  the  edge  of  the  blade,  the  case  is  bad  indeed,  for  the  work  of 
sinking  the  loop  will  not  only  be  much  increased,  but  the  yarn 
will  be  scraped  and  cut,  especially  at  knots;  and  an  occasional 
leaving  nib  will  pull  a  long  loop  by  stealing  from  the  already 
formed  loops,  and  will  thus  make  a  loose  loop  on  the  back  of  the 
fabric  with  tight  stitches  on  each  side,  which  latter  are  likely  to 
get  cut  at  the  cast-off. 

Blades  which  are  improperly  tempered  may  appear  all  right, 
but  may  become  nicked  with  use,  and  so  may  act  as  if  improp- 
erly tumbled. 

Sometimes  during  the  hardening  of  the  blades  a  black  oxide 
forms  and  does  not  come  off  in  the  tumbling.  The  rough- 
ness of  this  oxide  will  sometimes  put  severe  friction  on  the 
yarn. 

Needles  which  are  rusted,  tarnished,  or  insufficiently  polished 
will  sometimes  put  so  much  tension  on  the  yarn  that  the  sinker 
will  appear  to  be  improperly  set.  Also,  needles  which  are  cramped 
too  tightly,  or  are  roughened  in  the  cramp  by  improper  milling 


Sinker  Bur 


145 


or  by  oxide,  will  resist  the  entrance  of  the  yarn.  The  resistance 
increases  the  inward  bend  of  the  needle,  which  in  turn  increases 
the  cloudiness  of  the  fabric  and  invites  "  smashes." 

If  the  sinker  runs  all  right  with  the  yarn  in  position,  it  should 
be  tested  for  a  slight  overload,  which  testing  is  generally  done  by 
turning  the  cylinder  with  one  hand  while  a  finger  of  the  other 
hand  is  held  on  the  bur  to  retard  it  slightly.  If  it  is  properly  set, 
it  will  strike  the  oncoming  needle  first  with  its  shoulder;  but  if 
it  is  improperly  set,  the  nib  or  the  whole  edge  of  the  blade  will 
catch  and  buck  the  needle  out  of  line  inwardly.  It  is  unsafe  to 
run  a  bur  so  set,  since  overloads  are  sure  to  occur;  and  a  bur  so 
set  will  neither  avoid  trouble  nor  extricate  itself,  but  will  get 
into  deeper  trouble  after  it  gets  started. 

If  the  sinker  stands  a  reasonable  overload,  the  next  considera- 
tion is  the  sinker  shaft  spring.  All  machines  are  provided  with 
this,  for  the  reason  that  by  retention  of  the  adjusting  nut  against 
the  stop  it  provides  in  combination  with  the  nut  a  convenient 
means  of  adjusting  the  bur  for  depth.  Moreover,  probably  the 
majority  of  knitters  consider  that  the  spring  is  useful  for  relieving 
the  sinker  when  a  load-up  occurs,  by  allowing  it  to  back  part  way 
out  of  the  needles.  Consequently,  the  spring  is  generally  ad- 
justed to  keep  the  bur  at  the  required  depth  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  but  slack  enough  to  allow  it  to  back  out  and  drop 
its  load  if  this  gets  so  heavy  that  serious  damage  would  result. 
Of  course,  if  the  spring  is  too  slack,  it  may  allow  the  bur  to 
back  out  and  shorten  the  stitch  unnecessarily,  which  is  the  fault 
with  the  use  of  slack  springs.  However,  it  is  generally  admitted 
that  for  good  speed  and  especially  with  fairly  heavy  yarn, 
much  damage  can  be  averted  by  judicious  adjustment  of  the 
spring. 

A  common  difficulty  with  sinker  burs  is  to  get  blades  of  the 
proper  thickness.  Bad  results  follow  the  use  of  blades  which 
will  not  go  down  into  place  as  well  as  blades  which  are  loose. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  use  blades  which  are  a  trifle  oversize,  they 
can  sometimes  be  assisted  into  position  by  boiling  both  the  blades 
and  the  bur  bodies  in  a  solution  of  washing  soda.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  the  blades  are  very  loose,  they  should  not  be-  used  at  all, 
since  they  will  make  serious  trouble;  but  if  slightly  loose  and  no 
others  are  available,  the  bodies  may  be  put  on  an  arbor  and  filed 
slightly  with  a  dead  smooth  file,  which  will  throw  a  slight  bur 
over  into  the  slots  so  that  the  blades  will  fit  nicely. 


r 

146 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


LANDER  BUR 

The  lander  bur  follows  the  sinker  and  raises  the  old  stitch  up 
on  the  point  of  the  beard  while  the  latter  is  held  into  the  eye 
by  the  presser. 

The  requirements  to  be  met  in  adjusting  the  lander  may  be 
understood  by  considering  its  location.  It  runs  closer  to  the 
leads  —  or  cylinder  if  a  trick-needle  machine  is  used  —  than  any 
of  the  other  stitch-forming  burs,  since  it  is  necessary  for  it  to 
reach  low  in  order  to  raise  the  old  stitches  surely,  instead  of 
punching  through  the  fabric.  On  the  upper  side  it  comes  very 
near  to  the  presser,  since  it  has  to  land  the  stitch  while  the  beard 
is  sunk  in  the  eye,  for  raising  the  stitch  before  will  make  tuck 
stitches  and  raising  after  will  not  complete  the  new  stitches. 
Moreover,  the  needles  in  the  location  of  the  lander  have  not  only 
to  drive  the  lander,  but  also  to  withstand  the  resistance  of  the 
presser,  which  holds  them  inward  and  backward  a  little;  con- 
sequently, the  needles  cannot  be  depended  on  to  keep  their 
proper  position,  especially  with  a  tight  stitch,  which  puts  con- 
siderable work  on  the  lander  and  on  the  driving  needles.  The 
requirements  show  that  the  lander  should  run  as  near  as  possible, 
without  touching,  to  the  leads  or  the  cylinder  (as  the  case  may 
be),  and  as  near  as  possible  to  the  presser  without  touching  it  and 
allowance  should  be  made  for  deflection  of  the  driving  needles 
inward  and  backward.  The  necessity  for  this  allowance  accounts 
for  the  popular  rule  to  set  the  bur  loosely,  because  if  set  tight, 
the  displacement  of  the  needles  will  still  further  tighten  it. 
However,  it  is  evident  that  if  the  bur  is  too  loose,  it  will  over- 
reach so  that  the  end  of  a  blade  will  buck  the  oncoming  needle. 
The  point  of  contact  is  low  on  the  shank  of  the  needle  where  it 
cannot  give  very  much,  so  the  result  is  either  bruising  of  both 
the  needle  and  the  end  of  the  blade,  bending  outward  of  the 
needle,  or  breakage  of  the  blade.  The  bruising  caus^  tearing 
and  cutting  of  the  yarn,  the  bending  outward  of  the  needles 
destroys  their  alignment  in  a  manner  which  is  readily  recognized, 
since  needle  displacement  is  generally  inward  and  a  broken 
lander  blade  generally  causes  a  tuck  stitch  whenever  that  blade 
comes  into  action. 

One  of  the  most  frequent  sources  of  cutting  is  a  rough  lander 
blade.  One  reason  for  this  is  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be 
roughened,  owing  to  its  proximity  to  the  presser  and  to  the 
rigidity  of  the  needle  with  which  it  interferes. 


Cast-off  Bur 


147 


Sometimes  a  thread  of  waste  winds  around  the  lander  stud 
and  raises  the  bur  so  that  it  interferes  with  the  presser.  This 
causes  a  pecuUar  grinding  soun'd  when  stationary  pressers  are 
used,  but  nicks  and  raises  a  round  brass  presser.  The  nicking 
of  the  brass  presser  is  hkely  to  be  manifested  by  the  appearance 
of  tucks  or  cuts,  whereas  the  raising  of  it  prevents  clearing  the 
old  stitches,  and,  consequently,  leaves  the  yarn  floated  on  the 
back  of  the  fabric  instead  of  being  knit. 
A  loose  lander  stud  will  sometimes  allow  the  bur  to  take  a 
j  sudden  dip  into  the  leads,  in  which  case  a  blade  is  likely  to  be 
broken  out.  Also  a  weak  lander-bur  support  is  likely  to  spring 
downward  under  the  load  at  full  speed,  and  to  allow  the  blades 
to  interfere  with  the  leads  or  the  cylinder  according  to  whether 
leaded  or  trick  needles  are  used. 

CAST-OFF  BUR 

The  cast-off  bur  raises  the  old  loops  from  the  swell  of  the  beards, 
where  the  lander  left  them,  up  and  off  the  heads  of  the  needles, 
which  is  the  stitch-finishing  operation.  This  duty  is  much  like 
t  that  of  the  lander's,  but  it  is  favored  by  unrestricted  space,  which 
allows  large  diameter  of  bur,  and  affords  the  added  advantage 
of  more  blades  in  mesh  for  secure  driving.  Still  more,  the  cast- 
off  blades  may  be  set  farther  through  the  needles  which  also 
provides  security.  There  is  an  offset  to  this  in  that  the  cast-off 
works  near  the  tops  of  the  needles  where  they  are  most  pliable. 
But  altogether  the  cast-off  is  considered  the  easiest  bur  to  set; 
or,  if  it  is  well  set,  it  is  the  least  troublesome. 

The  common  rule  is  to  set  the  cast-off  tight,  since  the  back- 
ward bend  of  the  needles  in  action  loosens  the  cast-off  less  than 
the  lander.    The  ideal  position  is  supposed  to  be  that  which 
allows  the  entering  blade  to  keep  close  to  the  forward  needle,  since 
this  provides  space  for  a  backward  pull  under  an  overload, 
and  allows  the  leaving  blade  to  withdraw  midway  between  the 
adjoining  needles.    Evidently  to  obtain  this,  the  driving  must 
1  be  done  against  the  blades  which  are  well  in  mesh,  which  requires 
}  good  design  and  correct  adjustment.    The  absence  of  either  of 
I  these  puts  so  much  work  on  the  leaving  needle  that  it  snaps  free 
I  with  a  force  that  vibrates  it  like  a  tuning  fork.    It  is  likely  that 
this  vibration  shortens  the  life  of  the  needle.    Some  knitters  be- 
lieve that  in  time  it  snaps  the  beards  off.    But  at  least,  excessive 


148 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


I 


pressure  is  likely  to  shear  the  yarn,  especially  at  knots,  by  pinch- 
ing the  loop  between  the  blade  and  the  head  of  the  needle. 

The  cast-off  blades  like  those  of  the  lander  have  a  draw-cut 
action,  so  cutting  is  likely  if  they  are  sharp  or  nicked.  Con- 
sequently, every  precaution  should  be  observed  to  get  good 
blades  with  which  to  start.  After  that  the  principal  cause  of 
nicking  is  twisted  beards.  The  cast-off  blade,  entering  as  it 
does  from  behind  the  needle,  cannot  get  into  the  eye,  neither 
can  it  get  under  the  beard  unless  the  latter  is  bent  considerably 
to  one  side.  But  it  is  sometimes  bent  so  by  the  sinker.  The 
result  is  that  the  rising  cast-off  blade,  entering  between  the  beard 
and  the  shank,  forces  the  beard  off  and  nicks  itself  so  that  every 
time  it  touches  the  stitch  it  cuts  some  or  all  of  the  fibers. 

The  cast-off  burs  generally  used  in  America  have  rounded 
points,  which  permit  the  blade  to  slip  past  a  load-up,  particularly 
if  the  needles  spring  outward  to  assist  so  doing.  This  method 
of  casting  off  evidently  lacks  the  positiveness  of  cast-off  jacks,  so 
the  fabric  from  loop-wheel  machines  frequently  lacks  uniformity 
through  this  somewhat  haphazard  method  of  casting-off,  unless 
other  means  are  used  for  securing  equal  stitches.  A  rotary 
cast-off  bur  with  a  positive  action  simulating  that  of  cast-off 
jacks  is  used  to  some  extent,  but  it  requires  rather  short  needles 
in  order  to  obtain  a  sufficiently  positive  drive  to  perform  the 
harder  work  which  it  has  to  do. 

The  cast-off  is  supposed  to  be  set  sufficiently  high  to  clear 
the  stitches  surely,  and  yet  without  cutting  the  stitch  or  causing 
one  loop  to  steal  from  another.  If  it  is  too  low,  some  stitches 
will  not  clear  sufficiently,  which  causes  very  irregular  fabric,  or 
may  not  clear  at  all,  which  causes  tucks.  If  the  cast-off  is  too 
high,  it  will  strain  the  stitches  so  that  a  cut  will  occur  at  a  weak 
place  in  the  yarn  or  at  a  rough  place  in  the  blade;  or  if  not  so 
high  as  to  cut,  the  strain  on  the  stitch  may  be  sufficient  to  make 
the  new  stitch  draw  some  yarn  from  the  loop  ahead,  which  stitch 
in  its  turn  will  do  the  same;  but  since  the  amount  of  yarn  thus 
drawn  is  variable,  the  stitches  must  be  irregular. 


Weight  of  Leaded  Needles  149 


Spring-needle  Dimensions  and  Data 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

> 

Needle 

Needle 

Sinker- 
thick- 
ness 

Space 
between 

Yarn 

Gauge 

Dia. 

Length 

Beard 

Cramp 

space, 

space, 

needle 

space 

gross 

net 

and 
blade 

ih  of  9) 

5 

.1200 

2.30 

.70 

.060 

7 

.0800 

2.10 

.70 

.050 

8 

.0570 

2.00 

.65 

.040 

.1971 

.1401 

.020 

.1201 

.0600 

10 

.0510 

1.85 

.55 

.030 

.1562 

.1052 

.020 

.0852 

.0426 

12 

.0475 

1.70 

.53 

.027 

.1290 

.0815 

.020 

.0615 

.0307 

14 

.0415 

1.70 

.51 

.023 

.1102 

.0687 

.020 

.0487 

.0243 

16 

.0390 

1.57 

.48 

.020 

^0961 

.0571 

.016 

.0411 

.  0205 

18 

.0355 

1.48 

.40 

.016 

.0852 

.0497 

.016 

.0337 

.0168 

20 

.0315 

1.48 

.38 

.016 

'  .0766 

.0451 

.016 

.0291 

.0145 

22 

.0290 

1.48 

.36 

.013 

.0696 

.0406 

.010 

.0306 

.0153 

24 

.0280 

1.45 

.32 

.012 

.0636 

.0356 

.010 

.0256 

.0128 

26 

.0260 

1.31 

.32 

.009 

.0586 

.0326 

.010 

.0226 

.0113 

28 

.0260 

1.40 

.30 

.006 

.0544 

.0284 

.009 

.0194 

.0097 

30 

.0230 

1.31 

.25 

.004 

.0508 

.0278 

.009 

.0188 

.0094 

32 
34 

.0220 
.0220 

1.28 

.0476 
.0447 

.0256 
.0227 

36 

.0200 

1.17 

.24 

.003 

.0422 

.0222 

.006 

.0162 

.0081 

38 

.0190 

40 

.0190 

This  table  is  based  on  average  needle  dimensions  from  a 
prominent  spring-needle  manufacturer,  and  on  average  blade 
thickness  of  a  prominent  loop-wheel  machine.  Both  the  needle 
company  and  the  machine  company  emphasize  the  quite  well- 
known  fact  that  there  are  but  few  if  any  recognized  standards 
for  needle  and  sinker  design.  Therefore,  this  table  is  not  to  be 
taken  as  final,  but  rather  as  an  initial  basis  from  actual  practice, 
with  the  help  of  which  more  refined  tables  may  be  made  after 
the  principles  of  needle  and  sinker  design  are  better  understood. 


Approximate  Weight  in  Pounds  per  Thousand  of  Leaded  Needles  for  Spring- 
needle  Loop-wheel  Machine 


Gauge 

Pounds 

Gauge 

Pounds 

Gauge 

Pounds 

12 

15.0 

20 

8.1 

28 

5.7 

14 

11.7 

22 

7.3 

30 

5.4 

16 

10.2 

24 

6.6 

32 

5.2 

18 

9.1 

26 

6.1 

34 

5.0 

150 


The  Science  of  Knitting 
Spring-needle  Loop-wheel  Knitting 


Trouble 


Small  hole  with 
single  cut  in 
yarn. 


A  series  of  drop 
stitches  without 
a  break  in  the 
yarn. 


Cause 


Rough  or  nicked  blade  is 
in  lander  or  cast-off. 

Sinker  bur  is  too  tight  or  too 
loose,  so  that  blade  binds  the 
yarn  against  the  needle. 

Eyes  of  needles  are  too  long  or 
too  low,  so  that  the  j-arn  cuts 
in  the  sinking  of  the  stitch. 

Eyes  of  needles  are  too  shal- 
low, so  that  the  point  of  the 
beard  is  not  covered. 

Beards  are  turned  to  one  side 
or  the  other. 

Lander  is  set  so  tight  or  so 
loose  that  it  cuts  the  stitch 
against  needles. 

Lander  blades  cut  the  stitch 
against  the  presser. 

Cast-off  is  so  high  as  to  break 
the  stitch. 

Clearing  bxir  cuts  the  stitch 
against  the  leads  or  cylinder. 

Push  down  is  so  far  inward 
that  the  stitch  is  pulled  tight 
on  the  needle  and  is  cut  diu-- 
ing  pushing  down. 

Yarn  drops  down  off  the  sink- 
er. (This  is  characterized 
by  a  tight  thread  crossing 
the  hole.) 

Yarn  at  the  sinker  bur  runs 
up  over  the  beards.  (This 
is  characterized  by  a  loose 
thread  crossing  the  hole.) 

Yarn  drops  out  from  under 
the  beards  between  the 
sinker  and  the 
(Characterized 
No.  2.) 


Push  down  rolls  the  stitches 
on  the  outside  of  beard. 
(Characterized  same  as 
No.  2.) 


Remedy 


Polish  or  replace  blade. 

Readjust  or  replace 
sinker. 

Shorten  the  beards  or 
eyes,  or  use  larger 
sinker. 

Replace  needles. 


Replace  needles  or  re- 
pair the  mold. 

Readjust  or  replace  the 
lander. 

Readjust  the  lander  or 

presser,  or  both. 
Depress  the  cast-off. 

Elevate  clearing  bur  or 

move    piish  down 

ahead. 
Move  the  push  down 

out  or  reduce  take-up 

tension. 


Elevate  the  guide,  put 
tension  on  the  yarn, 
or  use  a  blade  with 
a  more  prominent 
nib. 

Lower  the  guide,  or 
sinker,  or  shorten  the 
beard. 

Cramp  the  needle 
beard,  use  the  sta- 
tionary presser  ex- 
tending from  under 
the  sinker  to  the 
lander;  dampen  the 
yarn. 

Move  the  push  down 
back  from  the  nee- 
dles, increase  the 
take-up  tension  or  use 
a  wire  tension  against 
the  cloth  ahead  of  the 
push  down  and  above 
it. 


Trouble,  Cause,  and  Remedy 
Spring-needle  Loop-wheel  Knitting 


151 


Trouble 


Tears  or  long  rag- 
ged holes  or  a 
series  of  them. 


Tucks  in  a  verti- 
cal line. 


5ingle  drop 
stitches. 


Cause 


Lander  is  too  high. 

Lander  blades  are  too  blunt. 

Take-up  is  slack. 


Heel  of  the  push  down  is  too 
low. 

Push  down  bears  on  the  lan- 
der. 

Push  down  bears  on  the  leads 

or  the  cylinder. 
Needles  are  rough  or  tarnished. 


The  needle  beard  is  low  so  that 
the  yarn  is  split  and  part  re- 
mains on  the  outside  of  the 
beard.  , 

The  needle  is  bent  inwardly  so 
that  it  is  not  completely 


The  needle  is  loose  in  the  lead 
or  trick. 

The  needle  is  weak,  owing  to 
deficient  temper,  so  that  it 
bends  away  from  the  pressor. 

A  mote  or  seed  is  lodged  in  the 
head  of  the  needle,  so  that 
the  stitch  will  not  cast-off 
readily. 

The  sinker  bur  is  clogged  with 
lint  so  that  the  beard  is 
pressed  down  and  the  yarn 
cannot  get  under  it.  (If 
successive  spaces  are  clogged 
a  succession  of  drops  will  be 
caused.) 

The  sinker  bur  is  so  tight  that 
the  blades  brush  a  beard 
down  so  that  the  yarn  can- 
not get  in  under  it. 

The  yarn  is  dropping  out  from 
under  beard  after  leaving 
sinker  or  running  out  of  the 
yarn  groove  on  the  sinker 
bur. 


Remedy 


Lower  the  lander. 

Use  a  new  lander. 

Increase  the  take-up 
tension  or  use  a  ten- 
sion wire  on  the  cloth 
above  and  behind 
the  push  down. 

Elevate  the  push  down. 

Move  push  down  for- 
ward. 

Elevate  the  push  down. 

Polish  by  running  with 
a  strong  yarn  and  a 
loose  stitch. 


Replace  the  needle. 


Bend  it  outwardly. 


Replace  if  leaded,  or  re- 
new the  leather  if 
trick. 

Replace  the  needle. 


Remove  the  obstruc- 
tion. 


Clean  sinker  bur. 


Readjust  the  sinker  or 
use  one  that  runs 
more  freely. 

See  "  Series  of  drop 
stitches  without  a 
break  in  the  yarn." 


152 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Spring-needle  Loop-wheel  Knitting 


Trouble 


Cause 


Rows     of  tight 
stitches. 


Beards  of  the  nee- 
dles broken  off. 


The  guide  is  clogged  with  lint. 
This  may  make  a  number  of 
courses  of  tight  stitches  be- 
fore the  yarn  breaks  or  the 
lint  pulls  through  and  runs 
into  the  needles. 

Rough  barrel. 
Coils  pulled  under 
others. 


Pull  from 
bobbin 
due  to 


Pull  from 
cone  due 
to 


Incorrect  distance 
from  thread  eye. 

Bobbin  not  under 
eye. 

Wrong  position. 
Friction  on  side  of 


Knot  or  seed  on 
side  of  cone. 


Underwinds. 
Sinker  bur  cramped  so  that 
the  blades  bind  the  needles 
and  bend  them  inwardly  so 
that  full  stitch  is  not  taken. 

The  stop  motion  claw  may  be 
so  close  to  the  needles  that  it 
catches  a  high  beard. 

The  toe  of  the  fiat  presser  is  so 
sharp  that  it  gets  in  under  a 
high  beard. 

The  cast-off  is  so  far  through 
the  needles  that  it  p\ishes 
the  stitch  out  against  the 
beards  and  breaks  them  off. 

The  presser  is  set  so  hard  that 
the  beard  is  pressed  down 
flat  and  breaks  at  the  head 
or  cramp. 

The  guide  is  too  close  to  the 
needles. 

The  sinker  bur  backs  out  for  a 
bunch  and  does  not  return 
fully  to  position. 

The  guide  strikes  sinker  caus- 
ing it  to  over-reach. 


Remedy 


Clean  the  guide  and 
polish  the  periphery 
of  the  hole  or  enlarge 
the  hole. 


Replace  bobbin. 

Use  quicker  traverse  or 
more  tension  in  wind- 
ing. 

Elevate  or  depress  bob- 
bin to  point  of  freest 
deliverj'. 

Place  bobbin  so  yarn 
delivery  is  uniform 
all  around. 

See  above. 

Use  cone  with  more 
taper,  or  increase 
speed  of  knitting  ma- 
chine. 

Remove  obstruction  or 
turn  by  hand  until  it 
is  removed. 

Improve  the  winding. 

Readjust  bur  or  replace 
with  one  properly  de- 
signed. 

Draw^  the  claw  back. 


Round  the  toe  of  tl 
presser. 


Move  the  cast-off  in- 
wardly. 


Press  lighter  or  farther 
toward  the  point  of 
the  beard. 

Move  the  guide  out. 

Tighten  the  spring  in 
the  sinker  tube. 

Move  the  guide  away, 
or  if  it  is  too  flexible 
to  retain  its  position 
against  the  tension  of 
the  yarn,  use  a  heav- 
ier guide^  


Tuck-stitch  Figures  —  Latch-needle 

Spring-needle  Loop-wheel  Knitting 


153 


Trouble 


Needles  break inj? 
at  the  lead  or 
trick. 


Tucks    made  at 
random. 


Cause 


The  lander  bur  is  over-reach- 
ing so  that  blades  buck 
needles. 

The  presser  is  set  so  deep  as 
to  bend  needles  too  much. 

The  needles  are  too  short. 
Occurs  when  j-arn  is  heavy 
or  wiry,  and  stitch  is  long  as 
in  knitting  linen  or  ramie. 

The  cast-off  is  set  so  tight  as  to 
snap  the  needles  as  they 
leave. 

The  round  presser  is  nicked  by 
bruise  or  by  striking  the 
lander  blades  so  that  it  acts 
as  a  tuck  presser. 

A  bent  blade  in  the  sinker 
is  brushing  down  a  needle 
beard  occasionally  so  that 
the  yarn  comes  up  outside  of 
the  beard. 

The  cast-off  blade  is  broken  or 
out  so  that  the  stitch  is  not 
cast  off. 


Remedy 


Set  the  lander  to  run  | 
tighter  in  the  needles 

Press  lighter. 

Use  longer  needles. 

Set  the  cast-off  looser. 

Turn  down  the  presser. 

Replace  the  blade. 

Insert  a  blade. 


TUCK-STITCH  FIGURES  —  LATCH-NEEDLE 

The  needles  in  latch-needle  knitting  machinery  are  operated 
;by  cams,  and  the  angles  of  these  cams  cannot  be  so  steep  as  to 
operate  one  needle  at  a  time,  for  if  they  were  so  steep,  then  the 
butts  would  be  sheared  off.  But  to  produce  tuck  figure  de- 
signs it  is  desirable  to  be  able  to  make  any  one  needle  tuck  or 
knit.  Consequently,  some  other  device  than  the  cam  is  needed 
to  operate  the  needles.  The  most  used  device  is  a  wheel  which 
takes  the  place  of  the  final  rise  on  the  raising  cam.  The  first 
part  of  the  raising  cam,  which  brings  the  needles  to  the  tuck 
position,  is  left  just  as  in  the  ordinary  machine.  If  the  wheel 
had  no  cuts  in  its  edge,  the  machine  would  knit  plain  fabric 
just  as  if  the  ordinary  raising  cam  were  used;  for  after  the  needle 
had  been  raised  to  the  tucking  position  by  the  fixed  cam,  the 
butt  would  come  to  the  flat  upper  face  of  the  wheel  and  be 
raised  farther  so  that  the  needle  would  knit,  as  the  angle  of  the 


154  The  Science  of  Knitting 


Needles  in  Tompkin's  Spring-needle  Leaded  Cylinders 


Gauge 

Dia. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

—  

22 


24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

9 

218 

256 

294 

331 

369 

406 

444 

481 



519 

 ■ 

556 

594 

632 

669 

10 

243 

285 

326 

368 

410 

451 

493 

535 

577 

618 

660 

702 

743 

11 

267 

313 

359 

405 

451 

497 

543 

589 

635 

680 

726 

772 

818 

12 

291 

342 

392 

442 

492 

542 

592 

642 

693 

742 

798 

843 

892 

13 

306 

370 

424 

479 

533 

587 

641 

696 

750 

804 

858 

913 

967 

14 

340 

399 

457 

516 

574 

632 

691 

749 

808 

866 

924 

983 

1041 

15 

364 

427 

490 

553 

615 

677 

740 

803 

866 

928 

990 

1053 

1115 

16 

389 

456 

523 

589 

656 

723 

790 

856 

924 

990 

1056 

1124 

1190 

17 

413 

484 

555 

626 

697 

768 

839 

910 

981 

1052 

1122 

1194 

1264 

18 

437 

513 

588 

663 

738 

813 

888 

963 

1039 

1113 

1189 

1264 

1339 

19 

462 

541 

621 

700 

779 

858 

938 

1017 

1097 

1175 

1255 

1335 

1413 

20 

486 

570 

653 

737 

820 

903 

987 

1071 

1155 

1237 

1321 

1405 

1487 

21 

510 

598 

686 

774 

861 

949 

1037 

1124 

1212 

1299 

1387 

1475 

1562 

22 

535 

627 

719 

811 

902 

994 

1086 

1178 

1270 

1361 

1453 

1545 

1636 

23 

559 

656 

751 

847 

943 

1039 

1135 

1231 

1328 

1423 

1519 

1616 

1711 

24 

583 

684 

784 

884 

984 

1084 

1185 

1285 

1386;  1485 

1585 

1686 

1785 

25 

608 

713 

817 

921 

1025 

1129 

1234 

1338 

1443 

1547 

1651 

1756 

1895 

26 

632 

741 

849 

958 

1066 

1175 

1283 

1392 

1501 

1608 

1717 

1826 

1934 

27 

656 

770 

882 

995 

1107 

1220 

1333 

1445 

1559 

1670 

1783 

1897 

2008 

28 

681 

798 

915 

1032 

1148 

1265 

1382 

1499 

1617 

1732 

1849 

1967 

2083 

29 

705 

827 

948 

1069 

1189 

1310 

1432 

1552 

1674 

1794 

1915 

2037 

2157 

30 

729 

855 

980 

1106 

1230 

1355 

1481 

1606 

1732 

1856 

1981 

2107 

2231 

31 

754 

884 

1013 

1142 

1271 

1401 

1530 

1660 

1790 

1918 

2047 

2178 

2306 

32 

778 

912 

1046 

1179 

1312 

1446 

1580 

1713 

1848 

1980 

2113 

2248 

2380 

33 

802 

941 

1078 

1216 

1353 

1491 

1629 

1767 

1905 

2042 

2179 

2318 

2455 

face  of  the  wheel  (not  the  edge)  is  just  that  of  the  higher  part  of 
the  raising  cam.  But  the  object  of  the  wheel  is  not  to  make  all 
of  the  needles  knit,  but  to  make  certain  of  them  tuck  This  is 
accomplished  by  cutting  grooves  in  the  edge  of  the  wheel,  wide 
enough  and  far  enough  apart  to  let  some  needle  butts  enter. 
From  this  it  follows  that  the  wheel  must  revolve.  In  revolving 
it  meshes  with  the  butts  just  as  a  gear  does  with  the  teeth  of 
another  gear.  The  needles  whose  butts  enter  the  spaces  in  the 
wheel  are  not  raised  above  the  tucking  position,  so  they  tuck; 
but  the  needle  butts  for  which  no  spaces  are  provided  ride  up 
on  the  face  of  the  wheel  and  are,  consequently,  raised  so  that 
these  needles  knit. 

Suppose  that  one  feed  is  used  with  a  pattern  wheel  cut  so  as 
to  catch  every  second  butt  in  a  space  and  the  others  on  the 
face  of  the  wheel.  Then  every  needle  which  enters  a  space  will 
tuck,  and  every  one  which  does  not  will  knit.    If  the  number  of 


Vertical  Patterns  in  Latch-needle  Knitting  155 


needles  in  the  cylinder  is  even,  then  the  same  needles  will  tuck 
every  time  around,  and  the  machine  will  become  loaded  up; 
but  if  an  odd  number  of  needles  is  used,  then  the  needles  which 
tuck  one  time  will  clear  the  next,  and  so  produce  fabric  con- 
taining diagonal  tuck  stitches.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the 
number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  is  determined  to  an  extent  by 
the  arrangement  of  the  cuts  in  the  pattern  wheel  But  if  there 
are  two  feeds,  then  the  second  one  may  be  provided  with  the 
regular  cams  and  so  clear  all  the  tucks;  or  it  may  be  provided 
with  a  pattern  wheel  so  designed  that  each  one  will  clear  the 
tucks  of  the  other.  The  number  of  feeds  is  not  restricted  to 
one  or  two,  but  may  be  any  number  which  space  will  allow,  and 
all  or  part  of  them  may  have  pattern  pressers  according  to  the 
design  to  be  made.  The  conditions  to  be  met  and  ways  to 
meet  them  are  explained  under  the  heading  Figure  Designing 
with  Pattern  Wheels. 

Machines  such  as  the  one  just  described,  that  is,  with  an  odd 
number  of  cylinder  needles  (no  dial)  and  two  feeds,  each  with  a 
knit-one-tuck-one  pattern,  are  used  for  making  incandescent 
mantles.  Each  wale  consists  of  two  tuck  stitches  followed  by 
two  plain  stitches. 

VERTICAL  PATTERNS  IN  LATCH-NEEDLE  KNITTING 

Vertical  effects  in  the  fabric  are  generally  caused  by  differ- 
ences in  the  needles.  It  is  possible  to  obtain  some  vertical 
effects  otherwise,  as  by  an  automatic  striper  changing  every 
half-revolution  of  the  machine,  but  very  narrow  effects  could 
not  be  so  obtained. 

It  happens  sometimes  on  a  two-feed  machine  that  a  needle 
becomes  roughened  so  that  it  does  not  clear,  i.e.,  tucks,  at  one 
feed,  but  knits  under  the  extra  pull  of  the  second  loop  at  the  other 
feed.  Suppose  it  is  a  cylinder  needle.  Then  it  makes  a  verti- 
cal stripe  one  wale  in  width  but  with  only  half  as  many  courses 
per  inch  as  the  rest  of  the  fabric,  because  the  thread  which  was 
taken  where  the  needle  tucked  is  not  drawn  through  into  the  face 
but  lies  back  out  of  sight.  Suppose  this  hidden  thread  is  black 
and  the  other  thread  is  white.  Then  the  pattern  is  a  white 
vertical  stripe  in  a  field  of  alternate  black  and  white  horizontal 
stripes  one  course  in  width. 

Several  facts  may  be  noted  from  this  illustration. 


156 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


1.  A  vertical  effect  may  be  caused  by  making  one  wale  differ- 
ent from  another  owing  to  a  difference  in  its  needle  from  the 
other's.  Evidently  these  different  needles  might  be  spaced  or 
grouped  in  different  ways. 

2.  The  yam  which  is  fed  where  a  stitch  is  tucked  is  hidden, 
whereas  the  held  loop  is  pulled  through  upon  the  face  of  the 
goods. 

3.  The  number  of  courses  in  the  tucked  wale  is  ^,  ^  or  j  of 
those  in  the  plain  wales  according  as  the  needle  clears  at  the 
second,  third  or  fourth  feed.  For  instance,  on  single  tuck  the 
needle  tucks  at  the  first  feed  and  clears  at  the  second  feed,  so 
its  wale  has  only  §  as  many  courses  per  inch  as  the  plain  rib 
fabric;  and  on  double  tuck  the  needle  tucks  at  the  first  feed, 
then  at  the  second  and  finally  clears  at  the  third,  so  its  wale 
has  ^  the  number  of  com'ses  per  inch  as  the  plain  rib  fabric. 

Xow,  if  a  needle  can  produce  a  different  effect  by  accident,  it 
can  be  intentionally  made  to  produce  a  different  effect.  Two 
obvious  methods  of  changing  its  action  are  (1)  to  unload  it  en- 
tirely by  dropping  its  stitch,  or  (2)  to  load  it  up  with  one  or  more 
extra  threads.  The  second  method  is  the  one  involved  in  this 
discussion. 

The  loading  up  of  any  one  needle  independently  of  the  others 
is  considered  to  the  best  advantage  on  a  two-feed  machine.  It 
is  generally  accompHshed  in  one  of  two  ways. 

1.  By  the  use  of  a  long  latch  on  the  needle  to  be  loaded. 

2.  By  reduction  of  the  travel  of  the  needle  to  be  loaded. 
The  Xo.  1  method  may  be  used  with  a  single  cam  race,  whereas 

the  Xo.  2  method  requires  more  than  one  cam  race. 

Consider  the  Xo.  1  method  used  in  an  imaginarj'  rib  machine 
with  ten  needles  and  with  two  feeds,  with  black*  yarn  at  one 
feed,  white  yam  at  the  other  feed  and  with  long  latches  in  four 
adjacent  needles.  The  machine  may  have  a  dial  or  not.  If  it 
has  a  dial,  the  inside  of  the  fabric  will  show  black  and  white 
courses  alternately.  If  it  has  no  dial  the  alternate  courses  will 
still  be  black  and  white  except  that  where  the  tucking  occurs, 
the  color  which  is  kept  out  of  the  face  will  appear  in  the  back. 
Set  the  raising  cam  at  the  black  feed  so  that  all  of  the  latches 
clear,  i.e.,  all  knit,  and  set  the  raising  cam  at  the  white  feed  so 
that  the  four  long  latches  do  not  clear,  i.e.,  so  they  tuck.  Then 
the  six  short  latch  needles  will  knit  at  each  feed  to  make  a  gray 
field  composed  of  alternate  black  and  white  courses,  but  the 


Vertical  Patterns  in  Latch-needle  Knitting  157 


four  long  latch  needles,  instead  of  pulling  the  white  yarn  through 
upon  the  face  of  the  goods,  will  merely  hold  it  until  the  black 
feed  is  reached,  when  each  will  leave  the  white  hidden  by  draw- 
ing another  black  loop  through  the  black  stitch  it  already  has. 
The  pattern  will  be  a  black  vertical  stripe  of  double  length 
stitches,  four  wales  in  width,  in  a  gray  field  composed  of  alter- 
nate black  and  white  courses. 

Now  elevate  the  raising  cam  at  the  white  feed  so  that  the  long 
latches  are  cleared  there  also.  Then  all  of  the  needles  knit  alter- 
nate black  and  white  courses,  which  terminate  the  black  stripe. 
That  is,  the  vertical  effect  produced  by  the  long-latch  needles 
may  be  stopped  by  raising  them  enough  to  clear  their  latches; 
and  it  may  be  started  again  by  depressing  the  raising  cam.  Or 
the  raising  cam  at  the  black  feed  might  be  depressed  so  that  the 
long  latches  would  be  held  there,  in  which  case  the  pattern  would 
be  a  white  block  of  double  length  stitches,  four  wales  in  width, 
and  still  in  the  field  of  alternate  black  and  white  courses. 

Summary  —  Long  and  Short  Latches 

With  a  machine  having  two  feeds  of  different  colors  and 
needles  with  long  and  short  latches,  a  vertical  stripe  on  the  long- 
latch  needles  may  be: 

(1)  Made  by  not  clearing  the  long  latches  at  the  feed  whose 
color  is  to  be  hidden. 

(2)  Terminated  by  clearing  the  long  latches  at  that  feed. 

(3)  Reversed  in  color  by  not  clearing  the  long  latches  at  the 
other  feed. 

From  No.  2  it  is  evident  that  both  raising  cams  may  be  raised 
so  that  all  of  the  needles  knit  plain  fabric  as  though  their  latches 
were  just  ahke.  It  also  follows  that  one  raising  cam  may  be 
lowered  so  that  all  of  the  needles  tuck  at  that  feed  (whether  long 
latches  are  used  or  not),  in  which  case  all  must  knit  at  the  other 
feed  in  order  to  clear  the  stitches;  the  result  of  which  is  that  the 
color  which  is  cleared  conceals  the  other  color  throughout,  and 
makes  what  is  called  the  accordion  stitch  when  a  dial  is  used  and 
all  the  dial  needles  knit. 

One  peculiarity  should  be  noticed  in  reversing  the  color  of  the 
stripe  by  causing  the  long-latch  needles  to  tuck  at  the  reverse 
feed.  Suppose  the  cams  are  reversed  simultaneously  (1)  just 
after  the  long-latch  needles  have  tucked  and  (2)  just  after  they 
have  cleared.    In  either  case,  since  the  cams  are  reversed,  the 


158 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


needles  with  long  latches  must  repeat  at  the  next  feed  what  they 
did  at  the  last,  i.e.,  in  the  first  case  must  make  a  second  tuck,  or 
in  the  second  case  must  clear  a  second  time.  In  other  words,  it 
is  impossible  to  make  the  change  without  knitting  hah  a  course 
at  the  new  feed  just  as  it  was  knit  at  the  preceding  feed,  whether 
that  was  tucked  or  cleared.  If,  rather  than  to  change  the  color 
of  the  stripe  by  a  reversal  of  the  cams,  it  is  changed  by  a  reversal 
of  the  yarns,  as  with  automatic  stripers,  the  half  coui-se  of  extra 
tucks  or  extra  plain  stitches  will  not  have  to  be  made. 

Now  go  back  to  the  imaginary  two-feed  machine  ^-ith  the  four 
needles  with  long  latches  tucking  at  the  white  feed,  thus  knitting 
a  black  stripe,  and  the  short-latch  needles  knitting  an  alternate 
black  and  white  course  field.  Suppose  that  the  lengths  of  the 
latches  were  instantly  transposed,  i.e.,  that  the  long  latches 
became  short,  and  vice  versa.  The  stripe  would  then  become 
alternate  black  and  white  courses,  and  the  field  would  become 
black,  i.e.,  the  whole  pattern  would  be  exactly  reversed,  which 
was  impossible  before  when  only  the  stripe  could  be  changed  by 
making  use  of  the  difference  in  the  lengths  of  the  latches. 

This  complete  reversal  can  be  obtained  in  practice  by  the 
second  method,  that  is  by  making  the  travel  of  some  of  the 
needles  different  from  others  with  the  use  of  a  double  cam  race. 
There  is  the  additional  advantage  that  the  alternate  black  and 
white  field  may  be  eliminated,  when  a  dial  is  used,  by  tucking  and 
clearing  at  alternate  feeds  instead  of  at  one  feed,  so  that  the 
stripe  may  be  black  and  the  field  white  or  vice  versa.  Otherwise, 
the  same  conditions  hold  as  for  long  and  short  latches. 

(1)  The  color  fed  where  a  latch  is^not  cleared  is  hidden. 

(2)  A  latch  not  cleared  at  one  feed  must  clear  at  another. 

(3)  A  vertical  stripe  on  certain  needles  may  be  made,  re- 
versed, or  terminated,  respectively,  by  not  clearing  their  latches 
at  one  feed,  by  not  clearing  at  the  other  feed,  by  clearing  at 
both  feeds. 

(4)  If  the  pattern  is  reversed  by  a  reversal  of  the  cams,  the 
needles  with  tucks  add  a  tuck  at  the  next  feed  and  the  needles 
which  have  just  cleared,  clear  again  at  the  next  feed. 

(5)  A  reversal  of  pattern  by  reversal  of  the  yarn  does  not  in- 
troduce the  extra  tucks  or  the  extra  plain  stitches. 

(6)  Plain  rib  may  be  made  by  clearing  all  needles  at  both  feeds 
or  accordion  (with  use  of  a  dial  with  all  dial  needles  knitting),  by 
clearing  all  needles  at  either  feed  and  tucking  at  the  other  feed. 


Velocity  of  Yarn  and  Needles 


159 


Diametral  r.p.m.,  and  Feet  and  Yards  of  Yarn  Used  per  Minute  per  Feed  by 
the  Latch-needle  Rib  Machine 


Dia. 
r.p.m. 

Needle  velocity  per 
minute 

Y'arn  velocity  per  min- 
ute (4  inches  of  needles 
to  1  foot  of  yarn) 

Difference  be- 
tween velocity 
of  yarn  and 
needles,  feet 
per  minute 

Feet 

Yards 

Feet 

Yards 

100 

26.2 

8.7 

78.5 

26,2 

52.36 

120 

31.4 

10.5 

94.3 

31,4 

62,83 

140 

36.7 

12.2 

110.0 

36.7 

73,30 

160 

41.9 

14.0 

126.0 

41,9 

83,80 

180 

47.1 

15.7 

141.0 

47  1 

94.25 

200 

52.4 

17.5 

157.0 

52.4 

104 . 70 

220 

57.6 

19.2 

173.0 

57.6 

115.20 

240 

62.8 

20.9 

189.0 

62.8 

125.70 

260 

68.1 

22.7 

204,0 

68.1 

136. 10 

280 

73.3 

24.4 

220,0 

73,3 

146.60 

300 

78.6 

26.2 

236,0 

78  6 

157.10 

320 

83.8 

27.8 

251.0 

83.8 

167.50 

340 

89.0 

29.7 

267,0 

89.0 

178  00 

360 

94.2 

31.4 

283,0 

94.2 

188.50 

380 

99.5 

33.2 

298,0 

99.5 

199.00 

400 

105.0 

35.0 

314,0 

105.0 

209 . 4U 

420 

110.0 

36.7 

330,0 

110.0 

219.90 

115.0 

38.3 

346,0 

115.0 

230 . 40 

460 

120.0 

40.0 

361,0 

120.0 

240 . 90 

480 

126.0 

42.0 

377,0 

126.0 

251.30 

500 

131.0 

43,7 

393,0 

131.0 

261.80 

520 

136.0 

45.3 

408,0 

136.0 

272 .30 

01U 

141.0 

47,0 

424,0 

141.0 

282 . 70 

560 

147.0 

49.0 

440.0 

147.0 

293 . 20 

580 

152.0 

50.6 

456.0 

152.0 

303 . 70 

ann 
OuU 

157.0 

52.4 

471.0 

157.0 

314.20 

Ron 

162.0 

54.0 

487.0 

162.0 

324.60 

din 

168.0 

56.0 

503.0 

168.0 

335.10 

660 

173.0 

57.7 

518.0 

173.0 

345 . 60 

fton 
OoU 

178.0 

59.4 

534.0 

178.0 

356.10 

7fin 

183.0 

61.0 

550.0 

183.0 

366.50 

79n 
/  zyj 

188.0 

62.6 

565,0 

188.0 

377.00 

1  w 

194.0 

64.7 

581,0 

194.0 

387.50 

760 

199.0 

66.4 

597,0 

199.0 

397.90 

800 

209.0 

69.7 

628,0 

209.0 

418  on 

820 

215.0 

71.7 

644,0 

215.0 

429.40 

840 

220,0 

73.4 

660,0 

220.0 

439.80 

860 

225.0 

75.0 

675,0 

225.0 

450.30 

880 

230.0 

76.7 

691,0 

230.0 

460.80 

900 

235.0 

78.4 

707,0 

235.0 

471.20 

The  average  yarn  velocity  of  circular  loop-wheel  knitting 
machinery  is  86  per  cent  of  the  above  for  the  same  needle 
velocity. 


160 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


NAMES  OF  CAMS 

Cams  are  divided  into  two  general  classes:  namely,  working 
cams,  which  transmit  the  work  of  forming  the  Stitch,  or  of  simi- 
lar operations;  and  guard  cams,  which  keep  the  needles  from 
traveling  too  far  after  leaving  a  working  cam.  In  other  words, 
the  guard  cams  are  those  which  combine  with  the  working  cams 
to  close  the  cam  races  and  so  keep  the  needle  butts  in  a  restricted 
path.  The  usual  working  cams  are  the  stitch  cam,  which  propels 
the  needle  when  it  is  drawing  the  stitch;  the  landing  cam,  which 
projects  the  needle  slightly  immediately  after  the  stitch  is  drawn; 
and  the  raising  cam,  which  projects  the  needle  preparatory  to 
drawing  the  stitch,  and  which  generally  contains  two  rises,  one 
to  open  the  latch  and  hold  it  open  until  the  yarn  carrier  is 
reached,  and  the  other  to  clear  the  latch  where  the  yarn  carrier 
will  keep  it  from  closing  before  the  yarn  gets  under  the  hook.  A 
switch  cam  is  one  which  changes  the  path  of  the  needle  butts, 
much  as  a  railroad  switch  changes  the  path  of  the  train.  Switch 
cams  are  generally  a  combination  of  working  and  guard  cam,  since 
it  is  desirable  to  control  the  travel  of  the  butt  especially  in  high- , 
speed  machines.  There  are  exceptions  to  this,  as  in  some  auto- 
matic hosiery  machines,  in  which  guard  cams  are  seldom  used, 
since  the  friction  of  the  needle  in  its  slot  and  in  the  work  is  suffi- 
cient to  keep  it  from  traveling  too  far.  Switch  cams  are  of  two 
general  kinds,  sliding  and  swinging,  or  wing  cams. 

ADJUSTING  IN  GENERAL 

Remember  that  screws,  etc.,  have  to  be  proportioned  according 
to  their  uses  and  that  consequently  the  force  applied  to  them 
should  be  limited  according  to  their  size.  Use  screw-drivers  of 
the  proper  width  and  ground  like  screw-drivers  instead  of  like 
chisels.  Use  wrenches  with  straight  parallel  jaws.  Use  judg- 
ment in  forcing  screws,  especially  hardened  ones,  since  they  are 
not  easily  removed  if  the  heads  are  broken. 

Always  make  a  definite  adjustment,  such  as  a  quarter  turn, 
a  half  division,  etc.,  and  remember  just  what  it  was,  so  that  it 
can  be  halved  or  doubled  or  retracted  entirely  according  to  the 
indications  of  the  results.  The  habit  of  making  only  definite 
adjustments  is  especially  desirable  with  knitting  machinery  in 
which  the  different  parts  are  frequently  duplicated  many  times, 
as  in  the  feeds,  of  which  8,  12,  16,  etc.,  may  be  used. 


Putting  Needles  into  Ribber 


161 


Make  only  one  independent  adjustment  at  a  time.  For 
instance,  if  the  cylinder-stitch  cam  is  elevated,  which  shortens 
the  stitch,  the  dial  stitch  which  is  dependent  on  it  may  break 
unless  the  dial-stitch  cam  is  brought  outward.  But  do  not  bring 
out  the  dial-stitch  cam  and  depress  the  dial  at  the  same  time, 
since  if  the  result  is  unsatisfactory,  it  is  difficult  to  tell  which  of 

f  the  two  changes  should  be  rectified.  A  new  engineer  in  a  promi- 
nent knitting  mill  adjusted  the  whole  engine  in  one  evening  and 
the  mill  had  to  close  for  three  days  while  a  crew  from  the  shop 
lined  it  up  again. 

Tighten  screws  and  nuts  after  temporary  adjustment,  since 
if  something  slips,  more  time  may  be  lost  in  repairing  damage 
than  in  loosening  the  screws  or  nuts  for  final  adjustment. 

After  adjustment  of  any  automatic  change  mechanism,  turn 
the  machine  through  the  change  by  hand,  since  for  many  such 
adjustments  there  are  positive  limits  which  appear  only  during 

.  operation  and. if  they  are  exceeded  with  the  power  on,  damage  is 
almost  inevitable. 

When  dissembling  any  part  of  the  machine,  notice  the  order 

I  in  which  it  comes  apart,  for  use  in  reversing  that  order  in  re- 
assembling. Corresponding  parts  are  frequently  marked  to 
correspond,  with  numbers  or  prick  punch  marks.  These  should 
be  followed  carefully  in  reassembling.  This  is  especially  impor- 
tant in  replacing  the  cross  bar. 

I  PUTTING  NEEDLES  INTO  RIBBER 

Nothing  but  the  needles  manipulates  the  yarn  during  the 
formation  of  the  stitch,  so  it  is  essential  that  the  needles  be 
good.  An  absolutely  perfect  machine  will  not  produce  good  re- 
sults with  poor  needles;  and  since  the  needles  are  more  readily 
changed  than  the  machine,  it  is  always  well  to  look  first  to  the 
needles  in  case  of  trouble.  It  is  best  to  look  the  needles  over 
before  putting  them  in  the  machine,  for  even  if  imperfect  needles 
are  the  only  ones  available,  knowledge  of  their  characteristics 
will  help  to  locate  trouble  if  any  develops. 

The  slot  for  removal  and  replacement  of  cylinder  needles  is 
in  the  back  cam  casing,  closed  by  a  swing  cover  to  keep  dirt  out 
of  the  cam  race.  To  remove  a  needle,  swing  back  the  cover  and 
bring  the  slot  opposite  the  needle  to  be  removed.  With  a  needle 
held  in  one  hand  hook  the  head  of  the  needle  to  be  removed  and 
draw  it  up  until  the  butt  is  near  the  spring-band,  draw  the 


162 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


spring-band  out  with  a  coarse  needle  held  in  the  other  hand,  and 
continue  drawing  the  needle  upward  and  out  of  the  slot.  Hold 
the  new  needle  near  the  head,  start  the  shank  in  the  slot,  pulling 
out  the  spring-band  as  before  to  clear  the  way  for  the  butt,  and 
press  the  needle  down  until  it  strikes  the  cam. 

The  slot  for  removal  and  replacement  of  dial  needles  is  under 
and  behind  the  oil  hole  in  the  cap.  With  a  needle  held  in  the 
hand,  hook  the  head  of  the  dial  needle  and  draw  it  out.  About 
four  needles  may  be  removed  through  this  slot  without  change 
in  the  position  of  the  machine.  If  it  is  desked  to  remove  sev- 
eral needles  at  one  place,  a  convenient  way  to  move  the  cap  the 
right  distance  is  to  count  four  needles  passed  by  the  heel  of  the 
yam  carrier.  This  relieves  the  operator  from  stooping  to  look 
under  the  cap. 

Do  not  leave  a  needle  part  way  in  the  slot.  Put  it  all  of  the 
way  in  or  take  it  out  entirely,  since  if  left  otherwise,  the  power 
may  be  thrown  on  and  the  machine  damaged. 

Do  not  turn  the  machine  during  removal  or  insertion  of  a  nee- 
dle, as  the  needle  may  catch  and  necessitate  the  undesirability  of 
turning  the  machine  backward. 

Make  sure  that  the  needles  do  not  bind,  especially  when 
inserting  a  number.  Just  how  snugly  they  may  fit  has  to  be 
learned  by  experience.  As  a  rule  they  may  be  tighter  in  a  ribber 
than  in  a  body  machine,  since  resistance  in  a  ribber  can  be  more 
readily  detected  through  the  hand  wheel. 

If  the  dial  needles  are  snug,  it  is  well  to  try  each  needle  head 
first  in  its  slot  as  the  needle  is  likely  to  be  widest  through  the 
rivet  and  binding  in  that  location  is  not  readily  detected  other- 
wise. 

Do  not  wedge  the  slots  apart  until  every  other  means  to  loosen 
the  needle  has  been  tried.  The  slots  are  cut  with  greater  ac- 
curacy than  can  be  obtained  by  manipulation,  so  as  often  as  one 
is  forced  it  follows  that  the  original  accuracy  is  proportionately 
impaired.  If  a  needle  sticks,  it  may  be  due  to  variation  in  the 
needle,  in  which  case  try  another  one  and  keep  on  until  one  is 
found  which  will  fit;  or  the  slot  may  contain  some  dirt  which 
needs  to  be  cleaned  out,  or  may  have  a  bur  at  its  end,  which 
bur  should  be  removed. 

If  the  needles  fit  tightly,  it  is  well  to  oil  them  freely  and  run 
the  machine  without  the  work  on  it  until  they  slide  easily  in  the 
slots.    It  is  always  advisable  to  do  this  after  the  insertion  of  a 


Yarn  for  Latch-needle  Rib  Machine 


163 


new  set  of  needles,  since  hooking  on  the  cloth  with  a  snug  set  of 
needles  is  not  an  easy  operation,  and  if  a  load-up  does  occur, 
damage  is  very  likely  to  result,  since  the  double  resistance  is  apt 
to  be  so  great  that  an  occasional  butt  will  shear  off  rather  than 
drive. 

A  muffled  thump  is  indication  that  a  butt  has  caught  seriously 
or  has  been  cut  oH.  In  the  latter  case  the  dial  should  be  raised 
or  the  cam  casings  should  be  removed,  according  to  the  location 
of  the  broken  needle,  and  all  broken  parts  should  be  found  and 
pieced  together  to  make  sure  that  every  piece  is  removed. 

When  the  cap  is  raised,  the  needles  will  remain  in  their  proper 
position  for  replacement  of  the  cap,  but  in  removal  of  the  cam 
casings,  care  should  be  taken  either  to  leave  the  butts  as  they 
were  in  the  cam  race  or  to  rearrange  them  so  before  replace- 
ment of  the  segments  of  the  casing,  otherwise  the  segments  will 
not  go  down  into  place.  The  casing  segments  of  a  machine  with 
many  automatic  changes  are  a  little  puzzling  to  replace  until 
some  familiarity  with  them  is  obtained,  but  they  should  never 
be  forced.  Careful  examination  will  show  how  the  needles 
should  be  arranged  to  permit  replacement. 


Yarn  for  Latch-needle  Rib  Machine 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Cut 

(Cut)2 

(Cut)2 

4 

(Cut)2 
5 

(Cut)2 

6 

(Cut)2 

7 

(Cut)2 

8 

3 

9 

2.3 

1.8 

1.5 

1.3 

1.1 

4 

16 

4.0 

3.2 

2.7 

2.3 

2.0 

5 

25 

6.3 

5.0 

4.2 

3.6 

3.1 

6 

36 

9.0 

7.2 

6.0 

5.1 

4.5 

7 

49 

12.3 

9.8 

8.2 

7.0 

6.1 

8 

64 

16.0 

12.8 

10.8 

9.1 

8.0 

9 

81 

20.3 

16.2 

13.5 

11.6 

10.1 

10 

100 

25.0 

20.0 

16.7 

14.3 

12.5 

11 

121 

30.3 

26.2 

20.2 

17.3 

15.1 

12 

144 

36.0 

28.8 

24.0 

20.6 

18.0 

13 

169 

42.3 

33.8 

28.2 

24.2 

21.2 

14 

196 

49.0 

39.2 

32,7 

28.0 

24.5 

Column  5  shows  the  cotton  number  of  yarn  generally  used 
for  the  corresponding  cut,  column  1. 

Columns  3  and  4  show  yarn  numbers  lighter  than  usual  and 


164 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


columns  6  and  7  yarn  numbers  heavier  than  usual.  The  numbers 
shown  in  column  7  are  considered  the  heavy  limit  for  single 
thread  on  the  ordinary  latch-needle  rib  machine.  However, 
multiple-thread  combinations  with  a  somewhat  heavier  equiva- 
lent may  be  used. 

HOOKING  FABRIC  ON  RIBBER 

It  is  assumed  that  the  machine  is  a  single  feeder  properly 
adjusted  and  ready  to  run,  except  that  the  cloth  is  not  on  the 
needles. 

See  that  all  the  latches  are  open. 

Unless  there  is  room  enough  between  the  cylinder  and  dial  to 
reach  a  needle  down  through,  elevate  the  dial  to  provide  suf- 
ficient room. 

Take  a  piece  of  fabric  from  a  machine  of  about  the  same 
size,  but  loosely  knit  from  soft  5''arn,  trim  square  the  end  which 
will  not  ravel,  pass  it  up  through  the  cylinder,  catch  the  edge 
with  a  needle  in  the  hand,  draw  it  up  and  hook  it  on  the  nearest 
cylinder  needles.  If  the  fabric  used  is  too  fine,  or  the  stitch  is 
too  tight,  the  loops  will  not  pass  over  the  heads  of  the  needles, 
or  will  break  in  so  doing,  which  affords  an  insecure  hold  to 
start  with.  If  the  yarn  of  which  the  fabric  is  made  is  too  strong, 
it  will  not  break  as  it  should  when  it  gets  caught  under  a  hook, 
so  that  a  severe  pull,  which  may  cause  a  butt  to  catch,  is  put 
on  the  needle. 

The  best  place  to  start  hooking-on  is  right  behind  the  feed, 
where  the  needles  are  drawn  back  to  clear  the  stitch,  but  in 
some  cases  there  is  sufficient  room  between  the  two  sets  of 
needles  at  other  places  around  the  cylinder. 

If  the  cylinder  is  too  small  to  admit  the  hand  conveniently, 
the  fabric  may  be  pushed  up  on  the  end  of  a  screw  driver  until 
a  small  section  is  caught,  and  then  the  fabric  must  be  drawn 
gently  downward. 

With  the  dogless  device  the  inside  of  the  cylinder  is  per- 
fectly free  from  obstructions,  but  on  other  machines  the  fabric 
must  be  worked  between  the  dogs  sometime  during  the  hooking- 
on,  depending  on  the  place  where  the  operation  is  started. 

The  amount  of  fabric  hooked-on  should  be  the  least  that  will 
give  a  secure  hold.  If  too  much  is  hooked-on,  the  surplus  should 
be  trimmed  off  with  shears,  as  otherwise  it  is  likely  to  clog  the 
needles  before  it  gets  dowTi  between  them. 


Hooking  Fabric  on  Ribber 


165 


After  the  first  section  of  the  edge  of  the  fabric  is  hooked,  turn 
the  machine  ahead  slightly,  reach  down  with  the  hook,  catch  a 
following  portion  of  the  edge  and  hook  it  on,  continuing  thus 
until  the  cylinder  needles  begin  to  withdraw  through  the  fabric. 
Thread  the  yarn  through  the  stop  motion,  through  the  hole  in 
the  top  of  the  stud,  or  through  the  guide  in  the  dogless  attach- 
ment, if  one  is  used,  and  finally  through  the  yarn  carrier  and 
under  the  hooks  of  the  cylinder  needles,  making  sure  that  the 
hooks  catch  it,  or  else  the  fabric  will  clear  and  leave  a  place  that 
will  have  to  be  patched  afterward. 

The  yarn  used  at  the  start  should  be  strong  and  rather  light 
and  the  stitch  should  not  be  tight,  otherwise  it  will  break  or  fail 
to  clear  readily. 

After  the  fabric  starts  into  the  feed,  keep  it  pulled  down  enough 
to  make  sure  that  the  cylinder  latches  will  clear  it  going  up  and 
that  it  will  pull  clear  of  the  needles  as  they  draw  all  the  way  back, 
yet  not  enough  to  break  the  stitches.  It  is  well  to  notice  the 
feed  frequently,  as  it  is  important  to  form  the  stitches  properly  - 
or  they  may  all  break  away,  and  necessitate  an  entirely  new 
start. 

Continue  the  hooking-on  as  before,  taking  care  not  to  hook  on 
double  thickness  and  not  to  catch  the  opposite  side  of  the  cloth, 
as  double  thickness  will  break  or  clog  the  needles,  and  catching 
the  opposite  side  will  leave  insufficient  cloth  to  go  around  and 
will  not  provide  uniform  tension,  which  is  needed  to  begin  with. 
When  the  starting  place  is  reached,  lap  the  fabric  over  itself  two 
or  three  needles  to  make  sure  of  a  secure  hold  all  around. 

If  the  fabric  fails  to  go  around,  or  is  doubled,  or  for  any  reason 
promises  to  clog  the  needles,  it  is  better  to  break  the  yarn  out  and 
clear  the  needles  by  a  revolution  of  the  machine  with  tension  on 
the  cloth,  since  it  is  better  to  make  a  new  start  than  to  bruise 
and  bend  the  needles  by  a  bad  start. 

Sometimes  the  fabric  may  catch  on  the  end  of  the  center  stem 
and  seem  to  be  short  on  that  account.  It  may  be  freed  by  the 
.  hand  reached  up  through  the  cylinder. 

If  the  yarn  breaks  in  drawing  over  the  dial  needle,  the  dial  may 
be  too  high,  in  which  case  lower  it,  with  caution  not  to  get  it  so 
low  as  to  obstruct  raw  edges  of  the  fabric,  or  a  possible  load-up, 
which  is  likely  to  occur  right  after  hooking  on. 

Watch  the  dial  needles  ahead  of  the  feed  and  open  any  latches 
which  may  have  closed. 


166 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


If  the  hooking-on  seems  fairly  secure,  start  the  cloth  in  the 
take-up.  But  if  it  is  not  secure,  it  is  well  to  use  hand  tension  a 
little  longer,  since  if  the  stitches  start  to  break,  the  hand  can  let 
up  quickly,  whereas  the  take-up  may  pull  the  fabric  entirely  free 
before  the  tension  can  be  released. 

It  is  well  to  have  the  cloth  in  the  take-up  before  the  power  is 
put  on,  since  the  take-up  pull  is  much  more  dependable  than  the 
hand  pull. 

After  the  power  is  put  on,  watch  all  around  the  needle  line  for 
loose  yarn  and  if  any  appears  that  does  not  quickly  knit  down, 
stop  the  machine,  or  the  needles  will  become  clogged,  in  which 
case  hooks  and  latches  get  bent,  latches  get  bruised  by  the  carrier 
and  butts  get  cut  off.  Pull  the  loose  yarn  clear  of  the  needles, 
taking  care  not  to  injure  the  latter,  and  hook  a  small  piece  of  cloth 
on  the  bare  needles  and  keep  hand  tension  on  it  until  the  hole 
mends;  or  if  the  space  is  not  large,  take  out  the  dial  needles  there, 
in  which  case  the  cylinder  needles  will  generally  pick  up,  after 
which  the  dial  needles  may  be  replaced  and  the  rib  knitting  will 
start  at  once. 

For  multiple-feed  machines  the  operation  is  substantially  the 
same,  except  that  each  feed  must  be  threaded  just  before  the 
fabric  comes  to  it  and  all  of  the  feeds  should  be  watched  to  make 
sure  that  they  are  clearing  the  stitch  properly  until  the  raw  edges 
are  down  out  of  the  way,  after  which  there  is  not  much  danger  of 
trouble. 

RIBBER  TAKE-UP 

The  take-up  is  driven  by  a  cotton  band  which  may  be  adjusted 
when  unhooked  by  twisting  or  untwisting  according  as  it  is  to 
be  tightened  or  loosened. 

The  stop-off  chain  connects  the  take-up  with  the  knock-off 
handle,  and  when  properly  adjusted  releases  the  power  if  the 
band  becomes  too  loose  or  comes  off.  It  does  not  release  the 
power  if  the  pulley,  miter  gears  or  collars  become  loosened,  so 
they  should  be  tightened  occasionally. 

The  sheave-wheel  shaft,  worm,  and  miter  gears  should  be  kept 
well  oiled,  but  the  take-up  rolls  should  not  be  oiled  more  than  is 
necessary  or  the  oil  will  run  along  them  upon  the  fabric. 

The  lightest  tension  is  obtained  when  the  weight  hanger-rod 
•  is  at  its  greatest  extension  back  of  the  take-up  and  all  the  weights 
are  on  it.  Moving  the  rod  inward  and  removing  the  weights 
increase  the  tension,  after  which  further  increase  is  made  by 


Locating  Sources  of  Trouble  in  Rib  Knitting  167 

reversal  of  the  head  of  the  rod  to  the  front  of  the  machine,  addi- 
tion of  weights  and  increase  in  its  adjustment  outward. 

To  start  the  cloth  between  the  rolls  lift  the  worm  to  the  top 
of  its  shaft  and  give  it  a  partial  turn  which  will  keep  it  out  of 
mesh.  See  that  the  fabric  is  not  twisted;  after  which  place  the 
end  between  the  rolls,  turning  the  latter  with  the  fingers  until 
the  end  comes  through  on  the  lower  side,  then  pull  it  up  through 
the  opening  in  the  leg  base,  and  keep  pulling  until  the  take-up 
stops  rising.  Give  the  worm  a  turn,  so  that  it  will  drop  into 
mesh,  and  release  the  fabric,  replacing  the  end  through  the 
opening  in  the  leg  base. 

To  remove  the  cloth,  take  hold  of  it  below  the  take-up  and  draw 
it  up  through  the  opening  in  the  leg  base  until  the  take-up  is 
lifted.  This  raises  the  worm  to  the  top  of  its  shaft.  Keep  the 
tension  on  the  cloth  and  give  the  worm  a  part  turn  to  hold  it  up 
out  of  mesh.  The  cloth  may  then  be  withdrawn  from  between 
the  rolls  and  the  take-up  is  ready  to  restart. 

LOCATING  SOURCES  OF  TROUBLE  IN  RIB  KNITTING 

One  of  the  most  frequent  troubles  is  a  vertical  streak  caused 
by  a  particular  needle.  If  it  is  caused  by  a  closed  latch,  a  glance 
at  the  needles  above  the  location  of  the  streak  will  generally  show 
it.  If  it  is  not  found  in  this  way,  take  out  a  dial  needle  where 
the  trouble  seems  to  be  and  run  the  fabric  down  below  the  head 
base.  If  the  streak  has  continued,  count  the  number  of  wales 
between  it  and  the  intentional  drop-stitch  streak,  which  is  the 
number  of  cylinder  needles  between  the  removed  dial  needle  and 
the  defective  needle.  If  the  streak  is  intermittent,  as  is  frequently 
the  case  with  drop  stitches,  put  the  head  of  a  needle,  back  down- 
ward, in  the  intentional  drop-stitch  streak  and  follow  down  until 
opposite  the  last  defect;  there  count  the  number  of  needles  be- 
tween the  two  streaks  and  locate  the  defective  needle  as  before. 

If  the  trouble  manifests  itself  in  horizontal  lines,  i.e.,  along  a 
particular  course  instead  of  a  particular  wale,  the  cause  is  at  a 
feed  instead  of  at  a  needle.  Mark  the  yarn  at  any  convenient 
feed  with  a  black  oil  spot,  run  the  spot  below  the  head  base  and 
count  the  courses  between  the  marked  course  and  the  one  showing 
the  defect.  This  number  is  the  number  of  feeds  between  that 
at  which  the  mark  was  made  and  the  defective  one.  If  the  de- 
fective course  is  below  the  marked  course,  then  the  defective  feed 
is  ahead  of  the  marked  feed. 


168 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


STITCH  ADJUSTMENT 

The  stitch  is  important,  not  only  because  it  is  the  essential 
factor  next  to  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  which  decides  the  struc- 
tural characteristics  of  the  fabric,  but  because  correct  stitch  ad- 
justment is  necessary  for  good  results  in  the  operation  of  the 
machine.  By  stitch  is  meant  the  length  of  yarn  in  the  loop. 
It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  stitch  as  applied  to  the  loop  from 
stitches  per  foot  of  yarn.  When  the  stitches  per  foot  are  in- 
creased, the  stitch  or  individual  loop  is  shortened  and  vice  versa. 
The  stitch  is  determined  first  by  the  size  of  the  yarn  and  there- 
after by  the  requirements  of  weight,  appearance,  and  feel  of 
the  fabric.  To  lengthen  the  stitch,  that  is,  to  increase  the  yarn 
m  each  stitch,  is  to  lengthen  the  loop,  and  to  make  the  fabric 
loose  or  sleazy,  if  the  original  stitch  was  normal;  and  to  shorten 
the  stitch,  that  is,  to  decrease  the  yarn  in  each  stitch,  is  to 
shorten  the  loop,  and  to  make  the  fabric  heavy  or  boardy. 

In  regard  to  the  running  of  the  machine,  too  tight  a  stitch  will 
tuck  and  load  up,  whereas  too  loose  a  stitch  will  drop  off  the 
needles  or  pull  twits  apart. 

The  commonest  and  easiest  way  of  counting  the  stitch  is  to 
count  the  number  of  courses  with  a  stitch  glass.  The  counting 
should  be  done  off  the  machine  to  eliminate  as  much  as  possi- 
ble the  disturbance  due  to  the  pull  of  the  take-up,  and  when  a 
close  count  is  desired,  it  should  always  be  counted  in  the  same 
location  around  the  cloth  and  away  from  the  dog  streaks.  Count- 
ing by  courses  is  a  good  way  when  the  length  of  the  fabric  is 
important,  as  is  the  case  generally  with  pattern  fabric.  It  also 
eliminates  differences  due  to  such  yarn  characteristics  as  twist 
and  harshness.  But  it  is  not  reliable  when  the  weight  of  the 
fabric  is  important. 

The  most  direct  method  to  adjust  the  stitch  is  by  the  number 
of  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn.  Get  the  stitches  per  foot  by  marking 
on  the  yarn  two  oil  spots  a  foot  apart,  running  them  into  the 
machine  and  counting  the  number  of  cylinder  needles  between 
the  spots,  remembering  that  a  space  also  is  to  be  counted  at 
one  end  just  as  in  counting  a  screw  thread.  Frequently,  it  is 
possible  to  find  on  the  stop  motion  convenient  measuring  dis- 
tances which  are  more  than  a  foot  in  length  and,  consequently 
afford  a  more  accurate  result.  For  scientific  purposes  one  whole 
turn  of  the  cylinder  is  taken  in  order  to  eliminate  the  effect  of 


Stitch  Adjustment 


169 


untrueness  in  the  cylinder  and  dial,  but  for  commercial  purposes 
one  foot  is  generally  a  sufficient  length.  The  stitches  per  foot 
of  yarn  are  desirable  for  solution  of  the  weight  of  the  fabric  per 
unit  of  area,  square  yard  or  square  foot,  for  solution  of  the 
pounds  production,  and  many  other  useful  details. 

To  start  the  machine  the  first  care  should  be  to  have  the  stitch 
suflSciently  loose  so  that  the  machine  will  start  well.  After  that 
it  may  be  adjusted  according  to  the  requirements,  whatever 
they  may  be,  such  as  weight  per  yard,  weight  per  dozen,  ap- 
pearance, or  feel.  These  adjustments  are  generally  made  to  a 
know^n  number  of  courses  or  stitches  per  foot,  or  by  trial,  but 
the  rules  given  elsewhere  provide  a  much  more  comprehensive 
method. 

There  are  three  places  in  which  the  stitch  may  be  adjusted. 
They  are : 

1.  Cylinder  stitch  cam. 

2.  Dial  stitch  cam. 

3.  Dial. 

The  extent  and  frequency  with  which  any  one  should  be 
used  depend  on  various  considerations  among  which  the  follow- 
ing are  important: 

The  dial  cannot  go  lower  than  the  position  which  surely  lets 
the  fabric  (bunches  included)  pass  between  it  and  the  cylinder. 
The  height  to  which  it  may  go  is  greater  than  the  stitch  will 
require. 

The  cylinder  stitch  must  be  long  enough  to  enable  the  loop 
to  clear  the  needles  without  tucking  or  breaking,  and  should  not 
be  so  long  as  to  pull  the  yarn  apart  at  twits.  The  range  of  ad- 
justment provided  in  the  machine  is  greater  than  that  gener- 
ally allowed  by  the  yarn. 

The  dial  stitch  must  be  long  enough  to  clear  itself  surely, 
but  is  limited  by  the  length  of  yarn  between  the  dial  needles 
and  cylinder  needles.  In  fact  the  dial  cam  stitch  adjustment  is 
the  most  limited  one  of  the  three;  moreover,  it  can  be  no  longer 
than  is  allowed  by  the  cj^linder  stitch.  So  as  a  rule,  the  dial 
stitch  is  set  to  clear  as  surely  as  possible  and  close  itself  as  much 
as  possible  without  unduly  straining  the  yarn.  After  that  the 
changes  are  generally  made  on  the  cylinder  or  dial  or  both,  ex- 
cept that  to  shorten  much  on  the  cylinder  requires  reduction 
in  the  dial  stitch.    To  lengthen  on  the  cylinder  or  to  change  the 


170 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


position  of  the  dial  up  or  down  does  not  necessitate  a  change  in 
the  dial  cam.  ^Moreover,  the  cylinder  cam  does  not  need  to  be 
adjusted  for  change  in  the  elevation  of  the  dial. 

Summary 

The  cylinder  stitch  cam  must  be  set  to  draw  enough  yarn  for 
both  the  cylinder  and  dial  stitch. 

The  dial  stitch  cam  must  be  set  to  draw  enough  to  clear  the 
old  stitch  surely,  but  not  enough  to  break  the  new  loop. 

The  dial  must  be  far  enough  away  from  the  cylinder  to  let 
the  fabric  pass  through,  but  may  be  adjusted  farther  without 
necessitating  change  in  either  the  cylinder  or  dial  cams,  until  the 
yarn  begins  to  break  or  unhook  from  the  cylinder  needles,  but 
this  is  not  likely  to  occur  until  the  fabric  is  too  loose  to  be  useful. 

The  cylinder  stitch  is  adjusted  by  means  of  what  is  called 
the  index  eccentric  in  the  cam  casing  below  the  place  where  the 
cylinder  needles  draw  the  yarn  do\^Ti  to  form  the  loop.  When 
the  screw  slot  is  horizontal  and  in  its  highest  position,  the  cam 
is  at  its  lowest  position.  Half  a  turn  in  either  direction  gives 
the  entire  range  of  adjustment.  The  change  of  adjustment  is 
greatest  when  the  slot  is  vertical  and  reduces  to  zero  when  the 
slot  becomes  horizontal. 

The  dial  stitch  is  adjusted  by  means  of  an  eccentric  like  the 
one  in  the  cam  casing  on  top  of  the  dial  cap  right  after  the  feed, 
or  by  a  headless  screw  in  the  edge  of  the  dial  cap  in  the  same 
location.    Turn  the  screw  clockwise  to  lengthen  the  dial  stitch. 

The  dial  adjustment  is  effected  by  means  of  the  nut  at  the 
top  of  the  dial  stud. 

The  machines  with  dogs  have  the  nut  threaded  on  the  stud 
so  a  right-hand  turn  of  the  nut  elevates  the  dial,  and  a  left- 
hand  turn  depresses  it.  The  stud  binding  screw  must  be  loosened 
before  each  adjustment  and  tightened  after  it.  When  lowering 
the  dial,  push  the  stud  down  into  position  after  unscrewing  the 
nut,  as  it  will  not  always  drop  with  its  own  weight. 

The  dogless  machines  have  capstan  nuts  threaded  on  a  washer 
instead  of  on  the  stud,  so  they  are  turned  to  the  right  to  depress 
and  to  the  left  to  elevate.  Use  a  stiff  rod  that  fits  the  holes 
well  in  order  not  to  bruise  them  by  the  slipping  out  of  a  scant 
or  flexible  wire.  Stud  binding  screws  are  not  used  with  the 
dogless  attachment,  but  it  is  generally  necessary  to  push  the 
stud  dovTD.  after  the  nut  is  turned  to  depress. 


Rib  Knitting 


171 


ADJUSTING  THE  YARN  CARRIER 

The  adjustment  of  the  carrier  involves  four  considerations: 

1.  The  heel  of  the  carrier  must  come  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
closing  cylinder  latches  without  touching  them. 

2.  The  bottom  of  the  carrier  must  come  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  dial  needles  without  touching  them. 

3.  The  inside  of  the  carrier  must  come  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  hooks  of  the  cylinder  needles  without  touching  them,  unless 
knots  catch  between  the  carrier  and  the  cheek  of  the  needle,  in 
which  case  the  carrier  may  be  moved  out  a  little,  provided  the 
hoolcs  surely  catch  the  yarn. 

4.  The  toe  of  the  carrier  should  be  adjusted  outward  to  the 
position  in  which  it  does  the  least  damage  to  the  latches,  a  posi- 
tion variously  estimated  from  |  to  |  inch  away  from  the  needles 
depending  on  the  shape  and  size  of  the  carrier. 

When  the  carrier  is  so  adjusted,  the  hooks  of  the  cylinder 
needles  should  not  be  uncovered,  cylinder  latches  should  not 
close  inside  of  the  carrier  or  catch  in  the  yarn  hole,  and  dial 
latches  should  not  close  under  the  carrier  or  before  the  yarn  is 
under  the  latch.  If  these  troubles  occur,  then  the  shape  of  the 
carrier  or  the  location  of  the  hole  should  be  changed  to  overcome 
them. 

Judgment  should  be  used  in  the  second  adjustment,  especially 
with  machines  having  dial  wing  cams,  since  the  height  of  the 
dial  needles  changes  according  to  whether  the  latches  are  open 
or  shut,  whether  the  needles  are  in  or  out,  whether  the  cloth  is 
on  or  off,  and  whether  the  stitch  is  loose  or  tight  either  owing  to 
adjustment  or  to  a  load-up.  The  carrier  should  be  adjusted  to 
clear  the  needles  under  all  these  conditions. 

RIB  KNITTING 
Trouble,  Cause  and  Remedy;  especially  for  Ribbers 
It  is  assumed  that  the  machines  are  not  in  bad  order  either 
from  excessive  use  or  misuse,  and  that  they  are  equipped  with 
stop  motions.  If  the  machines  are  in  bad  order,  trouble  may 
arise  from  so  many  sources  that  it  is  cheaper  to  have  them  re- 
paired than  to  search  in  books  for  remedies.  If  stop  motions  are 
not  used,  the  yarn  and  winding  should  be  first  class.  These  sub- 
jects are  not  treated  here,  since  they  have  been  considered  in 
other  books. 


172 


The  Science  of  Knitting 
Rib  Knitting 


Trouble 


Cause 


Remedy 


Stitch  dropped  from 
one  dial   needle,  ^' 
but  yarn  not  cut 


Stitch  dropped  from 
one  cylinder  nee- J 
die,  but  yarn  not] 
cut. 


Dial  stitch  dropped 
and  yarn  cut. 


Dial  latch  closing  under 
yarn  carrier. 


Dial  latch  closing  near 
heel  of  yarn  carrier.  "S 


Cylinder  needles  rising 
too  soon  after  drawing 
stitch  and  so  releasing 
it  before  the  dial  nee-* 
dies  withdraw  to  keep 
the  tension  on  it. 


Yarn  not  caught  by  cyl- 
inder needles. 

Yarn  twisting  out  of  cyl- 
inder needle  hook. 

Dial  needle  in  too  far' 
when  yarn  is  drawing, 
thus  cutting  it  on  sharp 
edges  of  saw  cut  in 
needle. 

Lint  or  a  mote  clogged  in 
saw  cut  so  that  latch  i 
cuts  itself  out  of  stitch.  ' 

Latch  binding  owing  to 
needle  being  bent  or  ] 
otherwise  damaged. 

Latch  closing  on  one  side 
of  hook  so  letting  other  j 
side  cut  stitch. 

Dial  needle  drawing  in' 
too  far,  thus  cutting 
stitch  on  edge  of  sinker 
or  breaking  it. 

Stitch  so  tight  that  it 
fails  to  clear  and  breaks  ' 
when  needle  comes  out.  ' 


Lower  carrier. 

Move  carrier  back  as  far 
as  possible  without  in- 
terfering with  cylinder 
latches  as  they  close. 

Carry  the  yarn  lower  so 
that  it  prevents  the 
closing  of  the  latch. 

Adjust  the  cap  forward 
so  that  the  dial  nee- 
dles will  not  come  out 
so  far,  unless  this  in- 
terferes with  drawing 
the  stitch  over  the 
rivet. 

Grind  cylinder  landing 
cam  so  it  raises  the 
cylinder  needles  no 
faster  than  the  dial 
needles  withdraw. 

Adjust  dial  cap  forward 
unless  restricted  by 
other  requirements. 

Adjust  guard  so  it  will 

catch.  I 

Put  tension  on  yarn.  } 

Dampen  yarn.  j 

I 

Adjust  cap  back  so  that  | 
yarn  is  drawn  over 
rivet. 


Clean  out  obstruction. 
Replace  needle. 
Replace  needle. 


Adjust  dial-stitch  cam 
outward. 

Loosen  stitch. 
Use    lighter    yarn  or 
coarser  cut. 


Trouble 


Trouble,  Cause,  and  Remedy 
Rib  Knitting 

Cause 


173 


Remedy 


Cylinder  stitch 
dropped  and  yarn' 
cut. 


Vertical  line  of  big 
stitches. 


Vertical  line  or  lines  J 
of  dial  tucks.  1 


Needles  loading  up 
all  around. 


Latch  swinging  to  one 
side  and  catching  on 
dial  needle  thus  break- 
ing out  of  the  stitch. 
May  result  from  saw  y 
cut  being  out  of  line  i 
with  the  butt,  the  latch 
being  loose,  the  latch  I 
being  bent,  the  needle  | 
too  loose  in  the  slot.  J 

Latch  closing  on  yarn  | 
carrier.  > 

Yarn  cutting  between ) 
cylinder  and  dial  nee-  ( 
die.  J 

Stitch  so  long  that  the ) 
needle  breaks  the  yarn  ? 
in  drawing  it.  * 


Edge  of  spoon  landing  on 
hook  thus  preventing 
latches  closing  com- 
pletely. 


Dial  latches  scored  by 
yarn  carrier  (on  ma- 
chines with  tucking  or 
welting  attachment). 


Slack  take-up.    Due  to 
(1)  Insufficient  weight. 


(2)  Inoperation  of  take- 
up  stop  motion. 


(3)  Take-up  pulley, 

gear,  or  collar 
loose. 

(4)  Take-up  gummed. 
Cloth  held  between  dial 

and  cylinder. 

Yarn  too  heavy. 
Stitch  too  tight. 


Replace  needle. 


Adjust  yarn  carrier  for- 
ward. 

Adjust  dial  so  that  the 
two  sets  of  needles  will 
not  interfere. 

Use  yarn  suitable  to  the 
stitch,  or  readjust  lat- 
ter. 


Replace  needle. 


Raise  yarn  carrier  so 
that  dial  needle  with 
closed  latch  will  pass 
beneath  under  all  con- 
ditions, and  replace 
damaged  needles. 

Add  front  weight  or  ad- 
just take-up  weight- 
hanger-rod  outward. 
Take  off  back  weight 
or  adjust  weight- 
hanger-rod  inward. 

Adjust  stop-off  chain- 
connecting  take-up 
and  knock-off  handle 
so  that  power  will 
knock  off  before  take- 
up  rests  on  leg  base. 

Tighten  loose  part. 
Clean  and  oil  take-up. 

Elevate  dial. 

Use    lighter    yarn  or 

coarser  cut. 
Loosen  stitch. 


174 


The  Science  of  Knitting 
Rib  Knitting 


Trouble 


Fabric   pulling  off 
needles.  1 


One  or  more  cyl-  f 
inder  stitches  J 
dropped  in  line  j 
with  dogs.  L 

r 


Cut,  or  drop,  with  a 
seed,  knot,  slub,- 
or  bunch  in  it. 


Press   off  without 
stop  motion  trip-<j 
ping. 


Cause 


Dial  needles  scored  all 
around  by  low  carrier, 
and  cutting  stitches. 

Stitch  far  too  tight. 


Take-up  tension 
vere. 


Dogs  holding  fabric  back^ 
so  that  cylinder  stitches  ! 
unhook  from  cylinder  | 


needles. 


The  seed,  knot,  slub,  or 
bunch. 


Remedy 


Yarn  parting  owing  to  a 
pull  between  the  nee- 
dles and  the  sweep  wire. 

(1 )  An  eye  clogged  with 

lint   owing  to 
roughness,  to  be- 
ing too  long,  to 
being  too  small  J 

(2)  knot   catching   on  i 

sharp  edge  of  eye.  j 

(3)  knot  catching  be-,,^ 

tween  yarn  car-  < 
rier  and  cheek 
needle. 

Lint  holding  feeler  finge 

8top    motions  impro 
erly  threaded. 


ill-  ; 


Raise  carrier  and  replace 
damaged  needles. 

Loosen  stitch. 

Take  off  front  weights  or 
adjust  weight-hanger- 
rod  inward. 

Add  back  weights  or  ad- 
just weight-hanger-rod 
outward. 

Increase  take-up  tension. 
Grind     landing  cam 
down  if  allowable. 

Keep  these  obstructions 
out  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, by  adjustment  of 
the  stop  motion  and 
by  keeping  the  ma- 
chine free  from  collec- 
tions of  lint. 

See  that  the  freest  pos- 
sible passage  is  allowed 
for  those  that  do  go 
into  the  machine. 
Knots  and  bunches 
may  catch  between 
the  yarn  carrier  and 
the  cheek  of  the  cylin- 
der needle,  or  the  dial 
needle  may  be  out  of 
its  mid-position  be- 
tween the  cylinder 
needles,  so  that  the 
obstruction  is  held  be- 
tween cylinder  and 
dial  needle. 


Modify  eye. 

Use  porcelain  eye. 


Round  edge. 
Use  porcelain  eye. 

Move  carrier  out,  if  yarn 

is  not  likely  to  drop. 
Drill  yarn  hole  higher. 

Clean  stop  motion  regu- 
larly. 

Use  caution  in  threading. 


Needles  per  Inch 


iii^issiiiiiiiSliSSg 

s^i^lSiiSliiS§Sig^i  •: 

g§SSSS;§§SS??S5322S8  :  :  :  : 

W  is  O  5  O  O  ^  2;  §  ^  S       M  22  §  

iSigslSigiiigi 

SiSiiiiSissS  ;;;;;;;; 

5.266 
4.588 
4.065 
3.649 
3.310 
3.029 
2.792 
2.589 
2.414 
2.260 
2.126 

4.137 
3.605 
3.194 
2.867 
2.600 
2.380 
2.193 
2.034 



3.761 
3.277 
2.904 
2.606 
2.364 
2.164 

J 

Nominal 
dia. 

(M                    CC         ""^                                "5                     0  "'"* 

The  Science  of  Knitting 


igiiiiEsssisiigiiSii 

iiiiiiSisSgisiiiiiig 
iisisissssiiii?i§siii 

lillli£liSISii=liiiS 
llgiiiisiissSiiiiiii 

5iiiiSiiiiis5iiii3ii 

iliiiiisSSiSSSissgii 

iliiisSHiiisiiiiSiSi 

iiSgiiisSliiiiilisii 

iiiSiRsiiiissgsiiiii 

igiiiiiSssssSiSgSiig 

iiiiiiiiii§ii5isiiSi 
g§issi»iiiigsisiisei 


ISisiiiiilsliliilisI 


I 


s§isiiisiisssisiiiii 


Needles  per  Inch 


177 


:  ;  iigigiiSigiiiiisSi 

^    ^   -H  ^ 

2 

^  _i  ^  ^ 

...... 

2 

:  ;  ;iiigie8sislsilii§ 

; ;  ;iiiiiiii2»3§lii§i 

:  ligiisiisiissisiiii 

:  iiiiissSKisiSlsisiS 
— ' 

;  ;ii2ggi3|§8siisiiil 

^  ^  —c 

^ 

§8 

;ii§giss;iisiisiii§i 

;iiiiisgiss3iiSsii5S 

§3 

iiiiiissiisSsiigiiSi 

o 

• 

j 

^2i§iii^iisis§iiii§i 

1' 

^  ^       «W  ^             nh«  ^        «l«  «M  ^        Hn  ««■•  ^  ^  .*« 

'8 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


giisiiiiisgiis 

„  Jj  _  „  o  o=  »  00  «o  ■»  I-      ^  « 


iigiisgggiiiii 


iiiigiiisiisii 


sa  =  ss 


iiiiisiii§iigs 

2  a  =  s  s  '-•^ 


iiisiiSssiiiiii 


2SS  =  S 


iiiiiSSililSiii 


iiiisiisssiSHi 


sa  =  3  =  """--- 


iiiiiisiisiisssi 


iRisisiiiisgiiii 


sa=:s2 


22  =  23"="=^'-'-'-" 


iiiSiiisf?iiig§ii 


i§siiiiii=iiiigs 


aa=:3 


iiigiSiiiisesiis 


2  =  32 


5§i£Siisii5si§s§iiii 


Needles  per  Inch 


2 

13 '400 
12.600 
11.890 
11.260 
10.690 
10.180 
9.708 
9.283 
8.891 
8.533 
8.202 

 =222^^0000.0000000 

;;;;;;; 

 S222:::;:322^=^=»«°°^ 

13.270 
12.430 
11.690 
11.030 
10.450 
9.917 
9.440 
9.006 
8.612 
8.248 
7.916  ! 
7.609 

:iiii§iiSis§i^ 

;iiSiii=iSiis= 

iiiiiiisSsisis 

 eoM-H000505  00  0ooot-t-lr- 

 ;2:e222222'='^«'«^^^'- 

: ; ; ;  :  iiiiiiilsisiisS 

 c2^c.-HOOOo.oooor^t-t^«= 

1 

Jl 

<M                    C«5                    T»<                     ^              "'^  ^  '** "I-* 

180 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


51, 
ill 


liSiiiig 

22S==S2" 


iiisiilii 


iiiiiiiBi 


iiigiliii 

S2a  =  =  S2''  = 


iiiisiiii 


3gg==22 


|g28|2||| 
322=222== 


liiiiilili 

2222  =  22  =  ='  = 


iiliiiiisi 


2222=22 


iiiSiiisii 


222=222 


liiiiiiisi 


ilgiiiisis§ 

^222::::22=^--=°» 


iiliiSiS 


2=: 


«222::-22**°«« 


g|lii§ii2Si 

222  22^:22*^*°°* 


Needles  per  Inch 




is!  98 
13.33 
12.75 
12.21 
11.72 
11.26 

i 

:::::::::::: 

 SSS-!S3^,H 

i 

::;::::::::::  :K2S§oS 


:  :  S  §  ^  §  5  ^ 
 2S^S2;ilS2 

i 

:::::::::::::  :§^g?2;;SS 
:::::::::::::  :  2  2  22  2 

::::::::::::  :S^K2ggJ^ 
::::::  J  ::::::^J2222;:::52 

13.91 
13.24 
12.63 
12.08 
11.57 
'  11.10 
10.67 

2 

<M 

::::::::::::. •S2:in;g;^8J5 
::::::::::::  :  S2  22  2 

::::::::::::  :5§§2Si$|g:^ 
:::::::. •:::::««£J::;:22 

13.52 
12.87 
12.28 
11.74 
11.25 
10.79 
10.37 

i 

14.11 
13.39 
12.75 
12.16 
11.63 
11.40 
10.69 
10.28 

i 

:::::::::::  :    S  S  S  S  S  g  22 
:::::::::::  :SS2S^^^;^22 

3    1     :::::::::::  :S3gg5SSS 

13.700 
13.010 
12.380 
11.810 
11.300 
10.820 
10.380 
9.980 

i 

13.570 
12.880 
12.260 
11.700 
11.180 
10.710 
10.280 
9.882 

1 

SsisiiiSiisigipiigi 

Nominal 
dia. 

M        "'^       C<3                                         ^        "IN       ^        -<|«  nlf 

The  Science  of  Knitting 


i 



13^82 
13.26 
12.75 



i3;71 
13.16 
12.65 

13.60 
13.05 
12.55 







14^09 
13.50 
12.95 
12.45 





13198 
13.39 
12.85 
12.35 

1 

13.87 
13.28 
12.75 
12.25 

13.76 
13.18 
12.64 
12.15 

244 

13.64 
13.07 
12.54 
12.05 

13 '53 
12.96 
12.44 
11.96 

14.03 
13.42 
12.85 
12.34 
11.86 





13.92 
13.31 
12.75 
12.23 
11.76 

15.80 
13.20 
12.64 
12.13 
11.66 

13.08 
12.53 
12.03 
11.56  J 



13.57 
12.97 
12.43 
11.92 
11.46 



14.10 
13.45 
12.86 
12.32 
11.82 
11.36 

Needles  per  Inch 


183 


"l4!03' 

i 

i 







a 

13.64 

:::::::::::::::  :§S 

:::::::::::::::  :^ 2 

::::::::::::::: 

::::::::::::::: 

i 

:::::::::::::::  :g§^ 

::::::::::::::: 

00 

  1 

13^77 
13.24 

i 

::::::::::::::: 

:::::::::::::::  22 

::::::::::::::: 

s 

:::::::::::::::  :S2 22 

i 

:::::::::::::: 

::::::::::::::  :  2;  22  22 

i 

:::::::::::::: 

:::.::::::::;:  :  22  22  22 

J 

1^ 

CC                                      lO  «o 

- 

184  The  Science  of  Knitting 


Diameter  of  Wildman  Ribbers  from  Back  to  Back  of  Cylinder  Needles 


Nominal 
diameter 

Actual  diameter 

Nominal 
diameter 

Proportion 
of  nominal  diameter 

Gauge 

Gauge 

18 

24-30-36 

48 

18 

24-30-36 

48 

2 

1  68 

1  69 

1  70 

2 

.839 

.846 

.851 

2{ 

1  93 

1  94 

1  95 

2i 

856 

.863 

.868 

2i 

2  18 

2  19 

2  20 

2^ 

871 

.877 

.881 

2f 

2  43 

2  44 

2  45 

2f 

883 

.888 

.892 

3 

2  68 

2  69 

2  70 

3 

893 

897 

.901 

3i 

2  93 

2  94 

2  95 

3i 

901 

.905 

.908 

3^ 

3.18 

3.19 

3.20 

3i 

^907 

.912 

.915 

31 

3.43 

3.44 

3.45 

1  31 

.914 

.918 

.921 

4 

3.68 

3.69 

3.70 

4 

.919 

.923 

.926 

4i 

3.93 

3.94 

3.95 

4i 

.925 

.928 

.930 

4^ 

4.18 

4.19 

4.20 

4i 

.930 

.932 

.934 

4f 

4.43 

4.44 

4.45 

4f 

.933 

.935 

.937 

5 

4.68 

4.69 

4.70 

5 

.936 

.939 

.941 

5i 

4.93 

4.94 

4.95 

5J 

.940 

.941 

.943 

5^ 

5.18 

5.19 

5.20 

5i 

.942 

.944 

.946 

51 

5.43 

5.44 

5.45 

51 

.945 

.947 

.948 

6 

5.68 

5.69 

5.70 

6 

.947 

.949 

.950 

6i 

5.93 

5.94 

5.95 

6i 

.950 

.951 

.952 

6§ 

6.18 

6.19 

6.20 

6i 

.951 

.953 

.954 

6f 

6.43 

6.44 

6.45 

61 

.952 

.954 

.956 

Circumference  of  Wildman  Ribbers  at  Back  of  Needles 


Nominal 
diameter 

Gauge 

Nominal 
diameter 

Gauge 

18 

24-30-36 

48 

18 

24-30-36 

48 

2 

5.273 

5.317 

5.349 

4i 

13.127 

13  171 

13.202 

2i 

6.059 

6.103 

6.134 

41 

13.913 

13.957 

13.988 

2h 

6.844 

6.888 

6.920 

5 

14.698 

14.742 

14.773 

2f 

7.630 

7.674 

7.706 

5i 

15.482 

15.52^ 

15.559 

3 

8.415 

8.460 

8.491 

51 

16.272 

16.313 

16.344 

3i 

9.200 

9.244 

9.276 

5i 

17.054 

17.100 

17.130 

3i 

9.986 

10.030 

10.062 

6 

17.841 

17.883 

17.915 

3i 

10.771 

10.815 

10.846 

6i 

18.627 

18.670 

18.702 

4 

11.557 

11.600 

11.631 

6^ 

19.410 

19.455 

19.487 

4i 

12.341 

12.386 

12.417 

6i 

20.197 

20.240 

20.272 

Performance  of  a  Latch-needle  Rib  Body  Machine 


cq  o  o  o  o 

O  1(5  O  O  O 

--  —  o  «o  00 
o  « 

O  ITS  o 
<£> 
CO 


»coooooooo 

t>i  o  o  o  o  im'  o>  o  o 
oo»ooooo«oo»o 

^(?»000^  oo 

evT     o  o  o  o 

.-H  O  00  "*  to 


ooooooooo 
«c  o  o  o"  o      e^'  o  (m' 

Cv|0000(N<-(Ot>. 

lot^ocoo  03 

C<l  C5  i-H  00 


OOOOOJiOOO 

oooooot>.oo 
o  o"  O  O      oo  o 

OOlOOOO  »-lO«0 

O  (M  «0  ^ 

S"  ^*  ^  (M* 

«5  (M  O 


88888 


^§888 

O  00 


82 

to 


.  S  o  «  c 


I  c  o  o  ;3      S  3 


186  TLe  Science  of  Knitting 


Table  of  Maximum  and  Minimum  Stitches 


Yarn 
No. 

VNo. 

Least 
number 
of  stitches 
per  foot 
of  yarn 
for  stable 
fabric 

Greatest 
number 
of  stitches 
per  foot 
of  yarn 

j 

Yarn 
No. 

VNo. 

Least 
number 
of  stitches 
per  foot 
of  yarn 
for  stable 
fabric 

Greatest 
number 
of  stitches 
per  foot 
of  yarn 

5 

2 

2361 

15 

25 

29 

74 

23 

4 

7958 

32 

70 

63.79 

6 

2 

4495 

16 

70 

32 

59 

24 

4 

8990 

33 

39 

65.16 

7 

2 

6458 

18 

04 

35 

19 

25 

5 

0000 

34 

09 

66.50 

8 

2 

8284 

19 

28 

37 

62 

26 

5 

0990 

34 

76 

67.82 

9 

3 

0000 

20 

45 

39 

90 

27 

5 

1962 

35 

46 

69.12 

10 

3 

1623 

21 

56 

42 

06 

28 

5 

2915 

36 

09 

70.38 

11 

3 

3166 

22 

61 

44 

11 

29 

5 

3852 

36 

72 

71.62 

12 

3 

4641 

23 

62 

46 

07 

30 

5 

4772 

37 

34 

72.86 

13 

3 

6056 

24 

58 

47 

96 

31 

5 

5678 

37 

96 

74.06 

14 

3 

7417 

25 

51 

49 

77 

32 

5 

6569 

38 

57 

75.24 

15 

3 

8730 

26 

40 

51 

51 

33 

5 

7446 

39 

16 

76.41 

16 

4 

0000 

27 

27 

53 

20 

34 

5 

8310 

39 

75 

77.56 

17 

4 

1231 

28 

11 

54 

84 

35 

5 

9161 

40 

34 

78.69 

18 

4 

2426 

28 

92 

56 

43 

36 

6 

0000 

40 

90 

79.80 

19 

4 

3589 

29 

72 

57 

97 

37 

6 

0828 

41 

47 

80.90 

20 

4 

4721 

30 

49 

59 

48 

38 

6 

1644 

41 

96 

81.99 

21 

4 

5826 

31 

24 

60 

95 

39 

6 

2450 

42 

58 

83.06 

22 

4 

6904 

31 

98 

62 

39 

40 

6 

3246 

43 

12 

84.12 

One  of  the  important  things  to  learn  about  a  country  is  its 
boundaries.  How  far  can  one  go  in  that  country  before  reaching 
its  border?  So,  in  knitting  one  of  the  important  questions  is 
what  are  the  Hmits?  How  far  can  one  go,  for  instance,  with  the 
stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  in  either  direction?  This  table  answers 
that  question  for  latch-needle  rib  machines,  as  it  stands,  and  for 
flat- work  machines  if  the  stitches  are  for  six  inches  of  yarn.  It 
is  of  course  understood  that  these  limits,  and  especially  the  loose- 
stitch  limits,  depend  upon  many  conditions,  such  as  opinion  of 
what  constitutes  good  fabric,  strength  of  yarn,  speed  of  machine, 
etc.  But  in  "any  case  this  table  constitutes  a  suggestion  from 
which  the  reader  may  make  his  own  table  to  suit  his  particular 
requirements. 

The  table  is  derived  as  follows: 

Least  number  of  stitches     =  6.83  VNo. 

Greatest  number  of  stitches  =  13.3  VNo. 


Yarn  Counts 


187 


YARN  COUNTS 

An  equal  weight  of  each  of  several  yarns  may  be  taken  and 
each  one  may  be  numbered  according  to  the  length  of  that 
weight,  as  in  the  cotton  count ;  or  an  equal  length  may  be  taken 
and  each  yarn  may  be  numbered  according  to  the  weight  of  that 

!  length,  as  in  the  grain  counts. 

The  first,  or  cotton  count,  method  is  called  "the  length-of-a- 

i constant-weight  system"  and  the  other,  or  grain,  method  is 
called  "the  weight-of-a-constant-length  system,"  For  brevity 
the  first  is  called  "  the  constant-weight  system"  and  the  second 
"  the  constant-length  system."  Both  are  very  simple  but  their 
application  is  made  confusing  by  the  use  of  many  uncommon 
units  of  measure,  such  as  hanks,  jack  draws,  etc.,  the  explanation 
of  which  is  of  historical  interest  principally. 

Simple  Units  are  Satisfactory.  —  All  that  it  is  necessary  to 
know  for  practical  purposes  are  the  common  equivalents  of  these 
units. 

Cotton  Count.  —  Suppose  the  pound  is  taken  for  the  unit  in 
j  the  constant-weight  system  and  one  pound  of  a  certain  size  yarn 
lis  found  to  be  840  yards  long.  Then  one  pound  of  a  yarn  half 
as  heavy  would  be  twice  840  or  1680  yards  long.  These  numbers 
840  and  1680  might  be  taken  as  the  yarn  counts,  but  they  are 
too  big  for  convenient  use.  So  a  larger  unit  of  length  than  the 
I  yard,  namely,  840  yards,  is  taken  as  the  cotton-count  unit  of 
I  length.  Consequently  the  cotton  count  of  any  yarn  is  the  number 
of  yards  in  a  pound  divided  by  840,  called  a  hank;  so  the  first  yarn 
was  No.  1  and  the  yarn  half  as  heavy  was  No.  2.  Evidently  in 
this  system  the  number  increases  as  the  yarn  becomes  finer. 

Grain  Count.  —  Now  suppose  that  50  yards  is  taken  as  the 
unit  of  length  in  the  constant-length  system  and  grains  as  the  unit 
of  weight.  Then  a  yarn  of  which  50  yards  weigh  one  grain  is 
one-grain  yarn.  A  yarn  twice  as  heavy  weighs  two  grains  and 
is  called  two-grain  yarn.  Therefore,  in  this  system  —  the  con- 
stant-length system  —  the  number  increases  as  the  weight  of  the 
yarn  increases. 

Transforming  between  Systems.  —  Take  a  round  piece  of 
elastic.  It  has  a  number  in  each  system.  Stretch  the  elastic  to 
twice  its  length.  Its  number  has  doubled  in  one  system  and 
halved  in  the  other  system.  That  is,  for  change  in  the  yarn  the 
number  multiplies  as  much  in  one  system  as  it  divides  in  the 


188 


The  Science  of  Ivnitting 


other.  Suppose  the  elastic  is  No.  1  cotton;  that  is,  52  grain, 
Cohoes.  One  multipHed  by  fifty-two  equals  fifty-two.  After 
it  is  stretched  twice  its  length  it  is  No.  2  cotton  and  26  grain, 
Cohoes.  Two  multipUed  by  twenty-six  equals  fifty-two,  the 
same  as  before.  And  no  matter  how  much  the  elastic  is  stretched, 
the  product  of  its  number  in  the  two  counts  is  fifty-two.  Take 
the  number  of  any  yarn  in  any  count  of  the  constant-weight 
system  and  its  number  in  any  count  of  the  constant-length  sys- 
tem; multiply  these  two  numbers  together  and  the  product  will 
be  a  constant,  which  divided  by  the  number  of  any  yarn  in  one 
coimt  will  give  its  number  in  the  other  count.  For  instance,  13 
cotton  is  4  grain,  Cohoes,  13  X  4  =  52.  Then  No.  10  cotton  is 
5.2  grain,  Cohoes  because  52     10  =  5.2,  etc. 

Transforming  within  Systems.  —  Transformation  between 
counts  in  either  system  is  effected  by  simple  proportion.  For 
instance,  the  cotton  count  and  the  worsted  count  are  both  of 
the  constant-weight  system  and  cotton  number  X  |  =  worsted 
number.  Similarly,  the  Amsterdam  count  and  the  Cohoes  count 
are  both  in  the  constant-length  system,  and  Amsterdam  num- 
ber X  ^  =  Cohoes  number.  On  these  two  simple  principles, 
division  of  a  constant  or  multipUcation  of  a  ratio,  depend  all 
the  yarn  transformations. 

The  table  on  page  194  gives  the  constants  for  practical  use  in 
transformation  between  systems  and  convenient  proportions  for 
transformation  within  either  system. 

Yam  Count  Definitions 


The  yards  in  a  pound 
divided  by 


The  weight  in  grains 
of  the  following 
number  of  yards 


840 

cotton  count 

560 

worsted  count 

1600 

.  is  the 

run 

300 

cut  or  lea 

496 

metric,  strict 

992 

metric,  modified 

■    6i  1 

Cohoes  standard 

12i 

^Amsterdam  standard 

20 

■  is  the 

American  standard 

50 

New  Hampshire  standard 

633.9* 

neat-silk  denier  standard 

36.57 

neat -silk  dram  standard 

♦  Some  authorities  differ  from  this  number  of  yards. 


Counts  Used  for  Different  Kinds  of  Yarns  189 


Technically,  the  weight  in  grains  of  |  g  |  jack  draws  is  the 

1  &"dard  I  but  {  ill  [  -  as  the  equivalent' 
lengths  in  yards. 

COUNTS  USED  FOR  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  YARNS 

;  Confusion  in  Yam  Numbering.  —  On  page  190  is  a  list  of  the 
most  used  counts  and  the  kinds  of  yarn  for  which  they  are  used, 
but  no  such  list  is  entirely  dependable.  For  instance,  20  ramie 
may  be  metric,  or  metric  modified,  and  if  it  is  not  known  which, 
confusion  is  likely  to  result  unless  the  individual  can  determine 
I  for  himself.  This  is  true  of  many  other  yarns.  Consequently, 
any  one  who  has  to  use  different  yarns  should  early  form  the 
habit  of  determining  the  number  for  himself  instead  of  depend- 
ing on  guesses.  See  ijarn  diameter,  from  which  the  cotton  count 
can  be  determined.  Then  by  simple  transformations  into  the 
counts  supposed  to  be  used,  the  actual  one  will  be  ascertained 
by  its  substantial  agreement  with  one  of  the  transformed 
numbers. 

Difference  in  Ply-yarn  Numbering.  —  Another  source  of  con- 
fusion is  the  lack  of  agreement  in  ply-yarn  numbers.  Thirty 
two-ply  cotton  is  really  15  cotton  made  of  two  thirty  yarns 
twisted  together.  Thirty  two-ply  spun  silk  is  really  30  yarn 
composed  of  two  threads  of  60  twisted  together.  Therefore, 
for  cotton,  divide  the  nominal  number  by  the  ply  to  get  the  real 
number;  but  for  silk,  neglect  the  ply  except  for  general  informa- 
tion. If  the  distinction  cannot  be  remembered,  but  some  of  the 
yarn  is  available,  dependence  should  be  put  on  actual  measure- 
ment. 

Confusion  between  Multiple-ply  and  Multiple-thread  Yam.  — 

Still  another  source  of  confusion  is  the  lack  of  a  distinguishing 
indication  whether  yarn  is  two-ply  or  two-thread. 

Ply  yarn  is  single  yarn  composed  of  finer  yarns  twisted  to- 
gether. Two-thread  is  an  expression  meaning  that  two  single 
yarns  are  used  as  one.  A  two-thread  fabric  is  generally  made  by 
running  two  separate  threads  into  each  feed  used  in  making  the 
fabric.  The  numerical  ways  of  writing  two-ply  or  two-thread 
30  are  2/30,  2-30;  30/2,  30-2.  In  some  localities  one  form 
means  two-thread  and  the  other  two-ply,  whereas  in  other 
localities  the  meaning  is  just  the  reverse.    Consequently,  when 


190 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


such  an  expression  gets  out  of  its  locality,  it  is  misunderstood. 
Moreover,  it  is  so  easy  to  forget  which  expression  means  two-ply, 
that  there  seems  but  httle  chance  of  agreement  on  a  definite 
meaning  for  either  form,  even  if  a  concerted  effort  should  be 
made.  Therefore,  the  only  safe  way  apparent  is  to  spell  out 
two-ply  or  two-thread. 

American  Count.  —  Used  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  Eastern  Canada  for  numbering  yarn  made  in  the 
knitting  miU. 

Amsterdam  Count.  —  This  is  merely  a  modification  of  the 
Cohoes  count,  used  to  obtain  a  more  accurate  weight.  It  is  used 
principally  thi'ough  New  York  State  for  j-arn  made  in  the  knit- 
ting mill. 

Cohoes  Count.  —  Used  through  the  eastern  part  of  New  York 
St^te  for  yarn  made  in  the  mill. 

Cotton  Count.  —  Used  ahnost  universally  for  commercial  cotton 
yarn,  including  mercerized  cotton,  also  used  for  spun  silk. 

Cut  or  Lea.  —  Used  in  Great  Britain  for  linen,  ramie  and  fine 
jute,  for  which  use  it  is  called  lea.  Used  for  woolen  j-arn  in 
Eastern  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  called  cut. 

Metric  Standard.  —  Sometimes  used  for  some  yarns  where 
the  metric  standard  is  obhgatory.  Ramie  is  numbered  in  this 
standard. 

Metric  Modified.  —  Used  for  linen  and  some  cotton  on  the 
European  Continent. 

New  Hampshire.  —  Used  to  some  extent  through  the  New 
England  States. 

Rim.  —  Used  for  woolen  yams,  other  than  worsted,  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Silk  Denier.  —  Used  extensively  for  raw  silk,  also  used  for 
thro^Ti  silk  on  the  European  Continent. 

Silk  Dram.  —  Used  for  thro\Mi  silk. 

Worsted  Count.  —  Used  extensively  in  English-speaking  coun- 
tries for  worsted. 

EXPLANATION    OF    CONVENIENT    EQUATIONS  FOR 
DETERMINING  THE  NUMBER  OF  YARN  IN  THE 
CONSTANT-WEIGHT  COUNTS 

It  is  generally  undesirable  to  reel  an  entire  hank  of  yarn 
when  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  count,  so  it  is  convenient  to 
have  shorter  lengths  which  will  serve  the  purpose  without 


Convenient  Equations  for  Determining  the  Number  of  Yarn  191 


necessitating  reduction  from  the  hank.  The  tabulation  of  con- 
venient equations  shows  in  the  first  row  the  definition  equations, 
except  that  those  of  the  metric  system  are  converted  into  yards 
and  pounds. 

The  second  row  is  the  same,  with  each  term  of  the  fraction  di- 
vided by  ten.  It  is  evident  from  the  first  equation  of  the  second 
row  that  if  84  yards  of  yarn  be  reeled  and  weighed,  the  num- 
ber will  be  one-tenth  divided  by  that  weight.  This  length  is 
long  enough  to  give  a  reliable  weighing,  yet  not  long  enough  to 
be  wasteful  of  either  yarn  or  time.    After  a  little  use,  the  decimal 


Convenient  Equations  for  Determining  the  Number  of  Yarn  in  the  Constant- 
weight  Counts 

General  Equation.    No.  =  •    ;  

Weight  of  a  constant  length 


Cotton 

Worsted 

Run 

No. 
No. 

1 

1 

Weight 

in 
pounds 

Wt.  840  yd3. 
.1 

wt.  560  yds. 
.1 

Wt.  1600  yds. 
.1 

Wt.  84  yds. 

wt.  56  yds. 

Wt.  160  yds. 

No. 
No. 

7000 

7000 

7000 

Wt.  840  yds. 
1000 

Wt.  560  yds. 
1000 

Wt.  1600  yds. 
1000 

Weight 

Wt.  120  yds. 

80  yds. 

Wt.  228.6 

in 
grains 

No. 

Si  X  yds.  weighed 

12.5  X  Yds.  weighed 

4.375  X  Yds.  weighed 

wt. 

wt. 

Wt. 

Cut 

Metric,  modified 

Metric,  strict 

No. 
No. 

1 

1 

1 

Weight 

in 
pounds 

Wt.  300  yds. 

wt.  496  yds. 
.1 

Wt.  of  992  yds. 
.1 

wt.  30  yds. 

wt.  49.6  yds. 

Wt.  of  99.2  yds. 

No. 
No. 

7000 

7000 

7000 

Wt.  300  yds. 
1000 

Wt.  496  yds. 
1000 

Wt.  992  yds. 
1000 

Weight 

wt.  42.86  yds. 

Wt.  70.86  yds. 

Wt.  141.7  yds. 

in 
grains 

No. 

23^  X  Yds.  weighed 

14.11  X  Yds.  weighed 

7.056  X  Yds.  weighed 

Wt. 

Wt. 

Wt. 

192 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


point  may  be  forgotten,  since  it  will  come  in  the  right  place 
from  habit.  All  of  the  other  equations  in  the  second  row  are 
similar  to  the  one  just  explained. 

It  is  frequentlj^  customary  to  weigh  in  grains  instead  of  pounds, 
so  the  third  row  gives  the  definition  equations  for  use  when  the 
grain  weight  per  hank  is  used.  But  since  the  hank  is  too  long 
for  ordinary  weighing,  the  fourth  row  gives  the  grain  weight 
equations  with  both  terms  divided  by  seven,  which  makes  the 
numerator  1000,  and  provides  a  convenient  length  for  reeling, 
the  weight  of  which,  divided  into  1000,  gives  the  number. 

The  fifth  row  gives  equations  for  use  when  it  is  not  convenient 
or  desirable  to  reel  a  fixed  length.  For  the  cotton  count,  weigh 
whatever  length  is  convenient  or  available  and  divide  that 
weight  into  the  length  in  yards  multipUed  by  8|.  Proceed 
similarly  for  the  other  equations. 

SINGLE  EQUIVALENT  OF  TWO  OR  MORE  YARNS 

Let  and  N'2  be  the  numbers  of  two  yarns  (in  the  constant- 
weight  system,  i.e.,  cotton,  worsted,  run,  cut,  metric)  whose 
single  equivalent  is  desired,  say  Ng. 

By  definition  Ni  =  — ^-r- — 7  \ — — i — — r — , 

*^  weight  of  a  constant  length  of  Ni 

^   1  ^ 

^     weight  of  a  constant  length  of  ^^2' 

Therefore,     weight  of  a  constant  length  of  Ni  = 

J\i 

weight  of  a  constant  length  of  Nz  =  -rr  ' 
Adding,  total  weight  of  a  constant  length  of  Ni  and  N2 

_  1       1  ^  A^i  +A^2 
Ni'^  N2       N1N2  ' 

Inverting, 

1  NiN2  ' 


total  weight  of  a  constant  length  of  A'':  and  N2     Ni  +  A^2 

=  Ns  by  definition. 

In  other  words,  the  product  of  two  yarn  numbers  divided  by 
their  sum  is  the  number  of  the  single  equivalent. 

From  which  it  follows  that  the  product  of  one  yarn  and  the 
equivalent  divided  by  their  difference  is  the  other  yarn. 


Yarn  Rules  for  Different  Yarn  Counts 


193 


Examples.  —  What  is  the  single  equivalent  of  No.  10  and 
No.  20? 

10  X20     200  . 

^-30—  =  30  = 

What  yarn  is  required  with  an  18  to  make  12? 
18  X  12  216 


18-12  6 


=  36. 


When  three  or  more  yarns  are  to  be  reduced,  combine  two 
at  a  time  until  the  single  yarn  is  obtained. 

When  the  yarns  are  in  the  constant-length  system,  their 
numbers  are  simply  added  to  obtain  the  number  of  the  single 
equivalent.  The  ordinary  counts  in  this  system  are  Cohoes, 
Amsterdam,  American,  New  Hampshire,  neat  silk  denier,  neat 
silk  dram. 

Explanation  of  Yarn-transformation  Table 

Page  194 

The  given  count  is  at  the  left  of  the  table.  The  required 
count  is  at  the  top. 

Divide  the  whole  number  or  multiply  the  fraction  at  the  in- 
tersection of  the  two  counts  by  the  number  to  be  transformed 
to  get  the  number  sought. 

Examples.  —  What  is  No.  10  cotton  in  dram  silk  count? 
Find  the  name  of  the  given  count,  cotton,  on  the  left.  Run  along 
to  the  column  headed  silk,  dram.  The  expression  found  there  is 
305.  Since  it  is  a  whole  number,  divide  it  by  the  given  number. 
305  ^  10  =  30.5,  the  dram  silk  number  of  No.  10  cotton. 

What  is  10-grain  New  Hampshire  in  the  Cohoes  count?  Find 
the  name  of  the  given  count.  New  Hampshire,  on  the  left.  Run 
along  to  the  column  headed  Cohoes.  The  expression  there  is 
25        .  . 

.    Since  it  is  a  fraction,  multiply  it  by  the  given  number  10. 

25 

jr— -  X  10=  1.25,  the  Cohoes  number  of  10-grain  New  Hampshire. 
JOU 

Yarn  Rules  for  Different  Yarn  Counts 

Page  195 

This  table  gives  the  yarn-for-cut  rules  transposed  into  the  yarn 
counts  used  in  America.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
transposition  is  made  according  to  the  yarn  numbers  and  not 
according  to  the  diameters,  although  the  last  method  is  right. 


194 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


WorBted 

g     g     S    gl5         giS  8I«    S  gl?3 

7920 
457 

Silk 
dram 

«lo  'eio           §      5      2      §    5?|2    8  ^ 

w        00        >o        cs  ^lc>* 

2535 
457 

Bilk 
denier 

2535 
80 
2535 

"so" 

2535 
25 

52S0 
14,790 
8,950 

4,470 

2535 
200 

2,770 

2535 

Tie" 

7,920 

a 

00         S                 c-4I§^|^mIo?jIw      m           •  ^ 

0 

el  ^ 

g|o  glo  gl"5           5      §      S       :      2  § 

2535 
200 
146 

625 

Metric, 
modi- 
fied 

:5      «     ^           ^12  ^100    :      S?            g  S 

Metric, 
stand- 
ard 

So                      »       OOIOQO|£2         •       oc''*'       O       001—       S          2       3r.  |C 
_          oo       col-*    «5l—         •       O  ;  cc      tr-       CO  1  (M       g  cs|q 

Cut 

Cotton 

'cS     S     2       :          0100  oir..    J::    01-    §  = 

—        —                          "*|r-i  ^Ico  "^Ico     •<*<      ^l(M     <N  n 

Cohoea 

c<i        0        00  0 

lOlO     WIO            •             10             rj<             00             -"Ji         S^  <^ 

Amster- 
dam 

gl»       '•     gIS      2        53        —                           0  g 

»0    ^  1  0  CO 

Ameri- 
can 

c-^                f-,  1 0 
C   OCjiO      CO         «o         •«         ^      S   o      oc  0 

OC'uSOClCSI        r-            1^.                            —         °^|C>J        00  00 

°°     r-l  <M 

CM 

Yam  Rules  for  Different  Yarn  Counts 


195 


1 

03 

cr 

CO 

i33iiiisg3iiiil|ii|§i 

Numbers 

cr 
m 

T-1  T-( -(  ,-1  ^  CSl       (M  CO  CO 

n 
£! 

o>ooicoico»ooiooiooooooooooo 

a 

latch-needle  knit- 
chine  for  rib  work 

1 

i 

l\o  i[6      6I»  6|S  6|-  6|:  1 6      1 6  ||6  612 

eedles  per 
cylinder) 

f 

< 

lis  ilu  116  6l»  &|-  b\-  6|-  S|£'      ||o  i.|6  ol^ 

a 

i 

ilB  SiO  lis  61-  6|-  6|:  6E  l\obt  1 6 

i 

U  inches) 

1 

|  o  ||o  Ijo  o|S  oia  5|S  SIS  II&  6!3  |  o  g  o  o|s 

spring-nee 
nitting  ma( 
flat  work 

1 

1 

Average 

|  o  1  o  1  o  SIS  613  SIS!  SI6 1  a  SIS  I  s  ||o  ais 

Circular 
wheel  k] 

1 

1 

lis  1 S  1  o  SIS  SI5  Sia  SIS  1-  5  SIS  ||o  |  &  ols 

1 

a 

American  

Cotton  

Cut  

Metric,  strict  

Metric,  modified  

New  Hampshire  

Silk,  denier  

Worsted  

196  The  Science  of  Knitting 


Yarn  Diameter  and  Coils,  from  Dia.  =  ^ 


No. 

Dia. 

Coils  per  1  in. 

Coils  per  h  in. 

2 

.033670 

29.700 

14.850 

3 

.027493 

36.370 

18  185 

4 

.023810 

41.995 

21.000 

5 

.021295 

46.955 

23.480 

6 

.019441 

51.490 

25.720 

7 

,017998 

55.557 

27.780 

8 

.016835 

59.400 

29.700 

9 

.015873 

63.000 

31.500 

10 

.015057 

66.415 

33.207 

11 

.014357 

69.650 

34.825 

12 

.013746 

72.750 

36.375 

13 

.013207 

75.715 

37.855 

14 

.012725 

78.580 

39.290 

15 

.012294 

81.340 

40.667 

16 

.011904 

84.000 

42.000 

17 

.011567 

86.450 

43.225 

18 

.011223 

89.100 

44.550 

19 

.010925 

91.530 

45.765 

20 

.010646 

93.930 

46.965 

21 

.010391 

96.230 

48.115 

22 

.010152 

98.510 

49.250 

23 

.009929 

100.720 

50.357 

24 

.009720 

102.880 

51.440 

25 

.009523 

105.010 

52.503 

26 

.009366 

106.760 

53.3S0 

27 

.009164 

109.130 

54.560 

28 

.008999 

111.110 

55.560 

29 

.008843 

113.080 

56.540 

30 

.008694 

115.030 

57.510 

31 

.008553 

116.920 

58.460 

32 

,  .008418 

118.790 

59.395 

33 

.008290 

120.630 

60.310 

34 

.008167 

122.450 

61.223 

35 

.008049 

124.240 

62.120 

36 

.007937 

125.980 

62.995 

37 

.007829 

127.730 

63.865 

38 

.007725 

129.500 

64.750 

39 

.007625 

131.150 

65.570 

40 

.007529 

132.820 

66.410 

But  there  is  yet  so  httle  information  about  yam  diameters  that 
no  transposition  could  be  made  if  the  yam  numbers  were  not 
used.  These  formulas  will  be  found  quite  reliable  —  much  more 
so  than  guesses — but  their  principal  value  is  in  the  simplicity 
of  their  form  rather  than  in  the  constants  given,  since  knit- 
ting is  in  such  an  unadvanced  condition  that  there  is  not  suffi- 
cient data  on  which  to  base  absolutely  reliable  constants.  But 


Yarn  Rules  for  Different  Yarn  Counts 


197 


such  are  not  necessary,  since,  as  a  rule,  each  knitter  needs  con- 
stants of  his  own  to  meet  his  own  conditions  of  yarn  and  stitch, 
depending  on  the  trade  to  which  he  caters.  These  simple  equa- 
tions give  him  the  models  from  which  to  make  his  own  rules. 
Multiplication  and  division  are  the  only  knowledge  needed  for 
their  use,  except  perhaps,  that  the  square  of  a  number  is  that 
number  multiplied  by  itself.  But  a  table  of  squares  is  given,  so 
that  the  squares  may  be  read  off  without  the  inconvenience  of 
computation.  Let  the  knitter  take  the  rule  that  applies  to  his 
machine  and  yarn  count  and  try  it.  Suppose  he  uses  latch-needle 
rib  machinery  and  numbers  his  yarn  in  runs.  If  he  wants  to 
make  average  weight  goods,  his  rule  from  the  table  is  Runs  = 

jj^'    Suppose  he  is  using  ^6  cut.    The  square  of  six  is  36, 

obtained  either  mentally  or  from  the  table  of  squares.  Then  the 
yarn  for  6  cut  is  36  -j-  11.4  or  3.2,  say  3  run  yarn,  for  short. 
If  this  is  too  heavy,  try  cut  squared,  divided  by  10.  If  that  fits 
the  case,  it  is  easily  remembered  and  can  be  worked  mentally. 
This  rule  will  hold  for  similar  conditions  on  all  other  cuts. 
Perhaps  the  knitter  uses  a  machine  altogether  different  from  any 
mentioned  in  the  rules.  That  makes  no  difference.  The  rule 
is  universal.  Only  the  constant  needs  to  be  changed.  Square 
the  needles  per  inch  or  the  gauge,  divide  by  the  yarn  used  on  that 
gauge  and  the  quotient  is  the  constant  for  all  other  gauges  of 
that  kind  of  machine.  If  the  yarn  count  is  in  the  constant  length 
system,  such  as  grains,  the  constant  has  to  be  divided  by  the  square 
of  the  cut  or  gauge  as  the  case  may  be,  as  is  shown  by  the  table. 
Two  precautions  are  advisable. 

The  first  is  to  make  sure  that  the  yarn  used  to  determine  the 
constant  is  the  right  size  for  that  purpose.  If  it  is  very  heavy 
for  the  cut,  then  the  equation  will  call  for  very  heavy  yarn  in 
every  case. 

The  other  precaution  is  to  avoid  the  use  on  a  coarse  cut  of  a 
constant  determined  on  fine  or  even  average  cuts.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  knitting  machinery  is  seldom  symmetrically 
designed  on  the  extreme  cuts  and  especially  on  the  extremely 
coarse  cuts.  Consequently,  if  a  certain  diameter  of  yarn  is  per- 
fectly satisfactory  for  a  fine  cut,  a  proportionately  heavier  one 
might  overload  a  very  heavy  cut.  Of  course,  if  the  constant  has 
been  determined  on  a  cut  comparatively  near  the  one  to  be  used, 
even  if  they  are  both  coarse,  the  rule  is  reliable. 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


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Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


199 


FIGURE  DESIGNING  WITH  PATTERN  WHEELS 

Knit  fabric  is  most  extensively  produced  in  the  form  of  a  tube 
by  circular  motion,  and  circular  motion  is  generally  described  in 
the  terms  of  the  motion  of  the  hands  of  a  clock. 

Knitting-machine  Motion.  —  The  motion  of  the  machine  in 
Illustration  1  is  contrary  to  that  of  the  hands  of  a  clock  and  so 
the  machine  is  called  counter-clockwise  or  anti-clockwise.    If  the 
j  motion  were  in  the  opposite  direction,  it  would  be  called  clock- 
i  wise,  since  it  would  then  be  just  like  that  of  a  clock,  which  is 
'  shown  by  the  one  illustrated  under  the  machine  for  the  purpose 
!  of  comparison.    It  is  evident  that  the  clock  is  on  its  back  and 
that  the  clock  case  is  taken  as  the  stationary  portion  just  as  the 
'  frame  of  the  machine  is  taken  as  the  stationary  portion  with 
!  respect  to  the  needles.    In  this  case,  the  frame  of  the  machine  is 
;  called  the  stator,  which  means  stationary  portion  and  the  cylinder 
and  dial  are  called  the  rotor,  which  means  rotating  portion. 
Evidently  the  machine  is  viewed  from  above,  just  as  is  the  clock. 
1  However,  if  this  machine  were  turned  upside  down  and  operated 
with  its  legs  towards  the  ceiling,  it  would  make  exactly  the  same 
:  cloth.    This  shows  that  although  it  is  permissible  to  classify 
knitting  machinery  according  to  its  motion  as  viewed  from  above, 
still  that  classification  will  not  properly  describe  its  motion  with 
respect  to  the  fabric  which  it  produces;  for  the  direction  of  motion 
is  reversed  by  inversion  of  the  machine,  but  the  fabric  is  not 
)  changed.    Again,  if  instead  of  the  needles  moving  anti-clockwise 
I  and  the  cams  keeping  stationary,  the  needles  were  kept  stationary 
and  the  cams  were  moved  clockwise,  still  the  cloth  would  be  the 
same,  although  the  motion  of  the  machine  would  be  different  by 
the  above  mentioned  classification.    In  order  to  overcome  all 
these  difficulties  and  still  adopt  conventions  which  may  be  readily 
learned  and  which  possibly  will  not  need  to  be  changed,  it  seems 
best  to  make  the  following  agreements: 

Top  of  Fabric.  —  (1)  That  the  top  of  the  fabric  is  to  be  that 
portion  which  is  nearest  the  needles,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
portion  which  left  the  needles  last.  This  is  generally  accepted 
of  plain  fabric,  although  it  is  contrary  to  American  practice  in 
regard  to  fabric  with  figure  designs.  But  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  get  a  universal  standard  without  contravention  of  some  local 
standards  and  there  are  a  number  of  good  reasons  other  than  that 
already  mentioned  for  considering  the  top  of  the  design  to  be  the 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


201 


portion  which  left  the  needles  last.  For  instance,  fabric  of  this 
kind  can  generally  be  raveled  only  from  the  end  which  left  the 
needles  last,  consequently,  it  is  natural  to  keep  this  end  up  to 
examine  a  given  sample.  Also  the  figure  of  the  design  may  well 
be  regarded  as  being  built  up  from  below^  like  most  structures  in 
which  the  first  courses  are  at  the  bottom. 

Face  of  Fabric.  —  (2)  The  face  of  the  fabric  is  that  side  towards 
which  the  new  loop  is  drawn  through  the  old  loop.  This  con- 
vention is  generally  accepted,  so  it  is  repeated  here  as  a  reminder 
instead  of  an  introduction. 

Fabric  Considered  to  Move.  —  (3)  The  fabric  is  to  be  con- 
sidered the  moving  portion  of  the  machine,  that  is,  the  rotor. 
With  this  agreement,  it  matters  not  whether  the  guide  or  the 
fabric  really  moves.  If  the  fabric  revolves,  there  can  be  no  con- 
fusion. If  the  guide  moves,  the  fabric  is  considered  to  move 
in  the  opposite  direction,  since  it  is  only  their  relative  motion 
which  counts  in  the  fabric.  This  will  be  made  clear  by  refer- 
ence to  Illustration  1,  in  W'hich  the  machine  is  considered  anti- 
clockwise, because  the  fabric  moves  in  that  direction.  If,  now, 
the  fabric  were  kept  stationary  and  the  cam  ring  were  moved 
in  the  opposite  direction,  the  structure  of  the  fabric  would  not 
be  changed,  therefore,  this  machine  w^ould  still  be  classed  as 
anti-clockwise.  The  agreement  on  this  convention  reduces  the 
complexity  of  the  question  one-half,  since  it  cuts  in  two  the 
number  of  machines  to  be  considered. 

Designation  of  Motion,  —  (4)  Since,  when  the  tube  of  fabric 
is  cut  open,  the  direction  of  circular  motion  can  no  longer  be 
determined,  the  wwds  "  right  "  and  "  left  "  are  to  be  used  with 
reference  to  the  fabric  —  viewed  face  out,  top  up  —  instead  of 
"  clockwise  "  and  "  anti-clockwise  "  to  indicate  the  motion  of 
knitting. 

The  fabric  from  the  machine  in  Illustration  1  is  top  up  and 
face  out.  Therefore,  the  knitting  motion  considered  with  respect 
to  the  face  of  the  cloth  is  right-hand.  Now,  consider  the  French 
circular  machine  shown  diagrammatically  in  Illustration  2.  The 
fabric  revolves  clockwise,  runs  downward,  and  faces  inward.  It 
is  evidently  right  side  up,  but  wrong  side  out.  Consequently, 
from  the  inside,  the  motion  of  knitting  is  right-hand  wdth  respect 
to  the  fabric.  Notice  that  one  change  of  position  was  necessary 
to  view  the  fabric  correctly  and  that  one  change  of  the  appar- 
ent direction  of  motion  was  necessary  to  obtain  the  correct 


202 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


direction.  Again,  consider  the  American  loop-wheel  machine  in 
Illustration  3,  in  which  the  fabric  revolves  anti-clockwise,  runs 
upward  and  faces  inward.  Evidently,  it  is  wrong  side  up  and 
wrong  side  out,  consequently  two  changes  of  position  are  neces- 
sary to  give  the  correct  view  position  with  respect  to  the  face 
of  the  fabric.  But  the  first  change  of  position  reverses  the  ap- 
parent motion,  and  the  second  brings  it  back  again  where  it  was 
at  first.    From  tliis  comes  the  general  rule: 

Rule  for  Motion.  —  To  gel  the  correct  motion  of  knitting  reverse 
the  apparent  motion  of  the  fabric  as  many  times  as  it  is  necessary 
to  change  position  in  order  to  view  the  face  right  side  up.  The  knit- 
ter should  be  prepared  to  meet  sixteen  types  of  machine.  The 
agreement  that  the  fabric  shall  be  considered  the  moving  portion 
reduces  the  number  to  eight.  Table  1  illustrates  the  eight  repre- 
sentative types,  describes  the  sixteen  types,  and  shows  the  direc- 
tion of  knitting  motion  for  each  one. 

The  diagrams  are  dra^Mi  with  the  portion  of  the  fabric  on  the 
needles  larger  in  diameter  than  the  first  knit  portion,  and  the 
latter  is  shown  with  what  appears  like  the  cutting  tooth  of  a  bit 
or  auger.  The  reason  for  showing  the  tooth  is  that  the  circular 
machine  really  knits  a  ribbon  of  fabric  and  loops  the  edges  of  the 
ribbon  together.  This  may  be  understood  from  Illustration  4 
which  represents  an  anti-clockwise  multiple-feed  machine  in 
which  the  fabric  runs  downward  and  in  which  one  feed  is  sup- 
plied with  black  yarn,  while  the  others  are  supplied  with  white 
yarn.  This  machine  knits  a  ribbon  of  fabric  as  many  courses 
wide  as  it  has  feeds,  which  width  is  from  black  course  to  the 
next  black  course,  and  at  each  revolution  loops  the  adjoining 
edges  of  that  ribbon.  Therefore,  if  the  tube  is  cut  around 
through  one  black  course  and  then  cut  lengthwise  along  one  wale 
to  the  next  black  course,  the  end  of  the  tube  will  show  the  tooth 


 1 

Back 


Illustration  2. 
French  machine. 


Illustration  3. 
American  machine. 


Illustration  4. 
Ribbon  structure  of 
circular  fabric. 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


203 


illustrated.  The  same  appearance  may  be  obtained  by  raveling 
all  the  threads  to  a  certain  wale.  The  path  of  this  ribbon  is 
called  a  helix,  and  the  first  formed  portion  always  points  in  the 
combined  direction  of  motion  in  which  the  fabric  is  formed. 
In  this  case  that  dii'ection  is  to  the  right  and  downward.  If 
this  ribbon  construction  of  the  fabric  and  the  direction  of  in- 
clination are  remembered,  figure  designing  with  pattern  wheels 
is  readily  understood. 

Pattern  Wheels  for  Latch-needle  Machine.  —  Evidently,  these 
pattern  wheels  do  not  act  on  a  particular  needle,  nor  do  they 
act  directly,  but  act  through  a  cam  on  an  entire  set  of  needles 
or  on  a  fixed  division  of  a  set,  as  when  the  set  of  needles  is 
operated  by  two  independent  sets  of  cams  for  making  vertical 
stripes.  On  the  contrary,  the  pattern  wheel  for  figure  designs 
acts  directly  on  each  individual  needle  of  its  set  or  division  of 
a  set,  and  is,  theoretically,  capable  of  making  any  needle  oper- 
ate in  a  contrary  way  from  any  other  needle.  For  instance, 
at  one  revolution  it  might  make  a  given  needle  tuck  and  the 
next  needle  knit,  whereas  at  the  next  revolution  it  might  make 
each  one  do  just  the  reverse;  that  is,  it  is  capable  of  selecting 
needles,  and  when  used  in  latch-needle  work  is  actually  called 
the  selector.  See  "  Tuck-stitch  figures."  In  spring-needle 
machines  it  is  called  the  presser  because  it  presses  the  beards  of 
the  needles  where  it  clears  the  stitches  and  mispresses  (fails  to 
press)  where  it  tucks. 

Spring-needle  Pattern  Wheel.  —  The  ordinary  spring-needle 
presser  is  a  bronze  wheel  about  3  inches  in  diameter  with  a  hub 
in  the  middle  for  its  supporting  stud  and  with  two  kinds  of  nicks 
around  its  circumference,  shallow  ones  called  prints  to  keep  the 
presser  traveling  with  the  needles,  and  deep  nicks  to  make  the 
pattern  effects. 

Material  for  Pattern  Wheels.  —  The  material  of  the  presser 
should  be  durable,  should  cut  readily,  and  should  not  roughen 
the  needles.  Bronze  meets  the  requirements  quite  satisfactorily, 
but  iron,  soft  brass  and  even  fiberoid  are  used.  The  latter  may 
be  cut  or  filed  very  readily;  it  is  quite  durable  and  is  economical, 
since  as  generally  constructed  the  hub  or  bushing  is  removable, 
so  that  the  only  cost  for  renewal  of  a  presser  is  that  for  a  new 
fiberoid  disc.  Also  with  this  construction  several  discs  may 
be  clamped  together  and  cut  at  one  time  when  duplicates  are 
required. 


206 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Special  Pattern  Wheels.  —  The  designs  are  generally  origi-  i 
nated  in  the  mill  and  the  patterns  worked  out  there,  after  which 
the  pressors  are  ordered  from  the  knitting  machine  shop  accord- 
ing to  the  specified  pattern.    In  mills  which  make  considerable  : 
quantities  of  pattern  work  the  cutting  is  done  in  the  mill's  re-  n 
pair  shop.    This  has  the  advantage  of  facilitating  the  work  and 
of  keeping  the  design  secret  until  after  the  goods  are  upon  the  f 
market,  which  insures  the  mill  one  season's  exclusive  run  on  i 
the  design.     However,  the  knitting  machine  makers  probably  i 
seldom,  if  ever,  betray  such  confidence,  so  frequently  knit-gooda 
manufacturers  who  are  not  famiUar  with  pattern  work  —  fancy  - 
work,  it  is  frequently  called  —  send  samples  of  patterns  to  the  fi 
knitting  machine  shop  with  an  order  for  pressers  to  duphcate  lo 
the  sample  or  to  make  similar  designs  adaptable  to  the  machines  ii 
in  question.    This  puts  all  of  the  responsibility  for  the  work  on  ;  s; 
the  knitting  machine  shop,  which  some  shops  offset  by  a  charge  y; 
for  the  analysis  of  the  sample.  !:' 

Advantages  of  Making  Pattern  Wheels  in  the  Mill.  —  The  k 
original  reasons  for  resorting  to  the  machine  shop  were  that  it 
was  equipped  with  cutting  machinery,  whereas  the  mill  was 
not,  and  that  the  builder  of  the  machine  was  familiar  with  the  i 
numbers  of  needles  in  difTerent-sized  machines  and  with  the  i 
rules  for  determining  the  sizes  of  the  pressers.  But  since  modern  i 
mills  are  generally  equipped  with  a  gear  cutter,  and  since  pressor  f 
calculations  are  very  simple,  the  practice  of  keeping  all  of  this  a- 
work  within  the  mill  is  increasing.  There  are  many  other  ex- 
cellent reasons  why  it  should  increase.  For  instance,  the  knitter  £ 
can  tell  exactly  how  many  feeds  he  is  running  on  each  machine,  ii 
and  just  how  many  needles  are  in  his  cylinders,  whereas  the  it: 
records  of  the  machine  shop  may  not  be  sufficiently  complete  to  t 
show  all  this.  Besides,  the  mill  management  may  have  the  l 
pressers  made  according  to  the  urgency  of  its  owti  particular 
case,  whereas  the  machine  shop  is  supposed  not  to  give  pri-  e; 
ority  to  any  particular  order.  Moreover,  in  case  of  a  mistake  si 
it  may  be  corrected  in  the  mill  with  the  least  delay.  And  finally  r 
the  knitter  should  make  his  own  designs  and  his  own  presser  r 
diagrams,  for  it  is  generally  easier  for  the  knitter  to  learn  this  i: 
than  it  is  to  convey  clearly  to  a  machinist  just  what  is  wanted,  it 

Relation  of  Diameter  and  Cuts.  —  If  the  machines  have 

20  needles  to  the  inch  and  the  pattern  contains  180  needles,  then  Ik 

the  circumference  of  the  presser  should  be  180  ^  20  or  9  inches,  i 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


207 


land  the  diameter  will  necessarily  be  9  ^  3.14  inches  =  2.86, 
provided  no  allowance  is  made  for  tipping  the  presser  or  for 
the  difference  between  pitch  diameter  and  actual  diameter.  In 
;many  cases  no  allowance  is  made.  But  the  reasons  for  such 
allowances  should  be  understood  for  use  when  they  are  needed. 

Tip  of  Spring-needle  Pressors.  —  In  most  American  loop- 
wheel  machinery  the  presser  is  kept  in  position  on  its  stud  by 
its  own  weight,  but  this  cannot  always  be  depended  upon,  for 
the  action  of  the  needles  has  a  tendency  to  raise  the  presser; 
consequently,  it  is  tipped  so  that  the  edge  which  is  approaching 
the  needles  is  a  Httle  lower  than  the  edge  which  is  leaving  them. 
Five  degrees  is  a  conventional  allowance.  The  necessary  al- 
lowance is  sufficient  to  keep  the  presser  down  surely  against  the 
shoulder  on  the  stud.  If  it  is  not  kept  down,  knitting  will  stop 
at  that  feed,  since  no  stitches  will  be  cleared  there.  Also,  the 
yarn  fed  at  that  feed  will  run  loose  and  the  design  will  be  spoiled. 
If  the  presser  is  tipped,  the  marks  on  the  presser  should  be 
farther  apart  than  the  needles,  since  the  edge  of  the  presser  has 
to  travel  farther  than  the  needles. 

Pitch  Diameter.  —  The  allowance  for  difference  between  pitch 
diameter  and  actual  diameter  would  be  absolutely  necessary  if 
the  presser  teeth  w^ere  long  like  gear  teeth,  but  for  loop-wheel 
machines  they  are  not.  The  cut  which  engages  the  needle  is 
generally  only  two  or  three  hundredths  of  an  inch  deep,  which 
depth  is  negligible. 

Diameter  Allowance.  —  In  the  light  of  the  above,  a  fairly 
safe  rule  is  to  begin  with  the  presser  two  per  cent  larger  than 
the  calculations  require,  and  to  depend  on  the  tip  of  the  presser 
for  the  exact  adjustment  of  the  cuts  to  the  needles.  Special 
cases  require  special  allowance,  but  the  knitter  can  undoubtedly 
make  these  better  from  experiment  than  from  general  rules. 

Latch-needle  Pattern  Wheels.  —  Selectors  for  latch-needle 
machines  are  not  included  in  the  above,  for  they  run  at  a  fixed 
angle,  are  generally  secured  to  the  stud,  and  operate  more  like 
gears.  Moreover,  they  are  generally  made  in  the  knitting- 
machine  shop,  since  they  are  preferably  made  of  hardened  steel, 
and  since  their  manufacture  requires  more  mechanical  skill 
than  the  knitter  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  have. 

Plain  Pressors  Like  Raising  Cams.  —  The  fundamental 
feature  of  the  pattern  wheel  is  well  shown  by  comparison  with 
the  plain  presser  used  in  loop-wheel  machines.    (In  latch-needle 


208 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


machines  the  cam  which  clears  the  latch  corresponds  to  the, plain 
presser.)  The  plain  presser  presses  all  of  the  needles,  so  it  may 
be  any  size,  provided  its  arc  of  contact  is  sufficient  to  enable 
surely  landing  the  stitch.  If  it  is  small,  it  merely  revolves 
faster  than  if  it  is  large,  but  even  then  it  does  not  have  to  keep 
step  with  the  needles.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  many 
cases  plain  pressers  are  merely  cams,  called  flat  or  stationary 
pressers.  These  pressers  correspond  exactly  with  the  raising 
cams  in  the  latch-needle  machine,  in  that  they  are  no  respecters 
of  needles. 

Pattern  Wheel  must  Count  Needles.  —  On  the  contrary,  the 
pattern  presser  must  be  a  respecter  of  needles,  which  necessi- 
tates that  it  must  keep  track  of  every  needle  —  actually  count 
needles.  This  is  the  fundamental  requirement  of  the  pattern 
presser.  It  follows  then  that  it  need  not  be  a  wheel,  or  any 
particular  device,  so  long  as  it  keeps  its  count.  Consequently,  a 
chain  meets  the  requirements,  or  a  magazine  of  pressers  arranged 
to  displace  each  other  successively  in  certain  order. 

Relation  of  Size  of  Presser  to  Number  of  Patterns.  —  The 
pattern  presser  really  counts  patterns,  that  is,  groups  of  needles, 
instead  of  individual  needles,  which  individual  counting  is  done 
by  the  cuts  of  the  pattern.  Therefore,  the  size  requirement  of 
the  presser  is  that  it  shall  contain  a  whole  number  of  patterns.  It 
must  be  large  enough  to  contain  one  pattern,  and  after  that,  it 
may  contain  as  many  more  as  convenience  dictates,  since  the 
design  is  unaffected  by  the  number  of  patterns  contained  by  the 
presser. 

Limitations  to  Size  of  Presser.  —  There  are  practical  limita- 
tions to  the  size  of  the  presser  too  numerous  for  generalization, 
but  a  few  of  them  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  their 
mention.  On  the  small  side,  the  limit  is  generally  the  least 
number  of  cuts  which  will  insure  landing  the  stitch;  although 
sometimes  the  hub  of  the  presser  is  so  big  that  the  number  of 
cuts  has  to  be  correspondingly  big.  However,  this  difficulty  is 
purely  mechanical;  consequently,  it  may  be  overcome  by  the  use 
of  a  small  stud  and  hub.  On  the  large  side,  there  are  such  limi- 
tations as  the  available  space  on  the  machine,  the  weight  of 
presser  which  the  needle  beards  can  safely  drive,  the  cost  of 
turning  and  cutting  a  big  wheel,  and  the  extent  of  the  index 
with  which  the  cutting  is  to  be  done.  It  is  not  infrequent  for  a 
knitter  to  make  a  design  for  a  certain  number  of  feeds  and  then 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


209 


ind  that  the  available  space  is  insufficiont  for  the  same  number 
Df  pressers  large  enough  to  carry  the  pattern. 

Position  of  Presser.  —  The  position  of  the  presser  with  respect 
:o  the  needle  line  affects  the  design.  For  instance,  changing  a 
presser  from  the  outside  of  the  needle  line  to  the  inside  inverts  the 
design.  Therefore,  the  position  of  the  presser  is  required  for 
intelligent  designing.  Illustration  5  shows  the  positions  which 
are  likely  to  be  encountered.    The  machine  is  anti-clockwise  with 


Illustration  5. 
The  three  usual  presser  positions. 


the  fabric  running  downward  and  facing  outward.  However, 
theoretically,  the  kind  of  machine  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
position  of  the  pressers,  since  the  latter  might  be  placed  in  any 
one  of  three  positions  on  any  machine. 

Representing  Presser  by  a  Paper  Ring.  —  It  is  evident  that 
the  directions  of  motion  of  the  inside  presser  and  the  outside 
presser  are  opposite.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  vertical  presser 
may  be  considered  to  revolve  like  the  inside  presser  or  the  outside 
presser  according  to  whether  its  outside  face  or  inside  face  is 
taken  as  the  top.  It  is  shown  farther  on  that  a  paper  pattern 
may  be  formed  in  a  circle  to  represent  the  circumference  of  the 
presser.  Then  exact  comparison  may  be  made  between  the  actual 
presser  and  the  circular  pattern,  with  the  circular  pattern  held 
in  the  position  of  the  presser  and  with  the  operating  side  of  the 
pattern  considered  the  same  as  that  of  the  presser. 


210  The  Science  of  Knitting  U 

{ 

Printing  Presser  with  Needles.  —  When  it  is  inconvenient  to ! 
have  ])resscrs  cut  by  machine,  the  following  method  is  sometimes  i 
used.  The  presser  blank  is  turned  to  the  calculated  , size,  ori' 
slightly  over  that  size,  and  then  run  on  the  knitting  machme  with  ' 
moderate  pressure  against  the  shanks  of  the  needles,  where  they ; 
are  stiff.  The  presser  becomes  marked  by  the  needles  according ; 
to  the  needle  spacing.  These  marks  are  counted  and  there  should 
be  as  many  as  there  are  needles  in  the  pattern,  or  in  a  multiple  of  ; 
it.  If  there  are  too  many  prints  in  the  presser,  it  is  turned  down  ; 
slightly  and  reprinted  until  it  contains  just  the  right  number. 
Then  the  prints  which  are  to  skip  needles  are  made  deep  enough  i 
and  wide  enough  to  skip  with  the  use  of  a  file  or  a  hack  sawj 
or  both. 

Since  designs  with  tuck  stitches  are  the  commonest,  the  dis- 
cussion is  continued  with  respect  to  tuck  work;  but  the  principles 
apply  to  practically  all  circular  pattern  devices. 

Presser  Like  a  Wheel  Printing  a  Ribbon.  —  From  the  fact  that 
the  presser  operates  directly  on  the  needles  it  may  be  considered  to 
operate  directly  on  the  fabric;  and  since  the  fabric  travels  in  a  hel- 
ical path,  the  presser  may  be  considered  to  be  a  printing  wheel 
beneath  which  the  ribbon  of  fabric  runs  and  receives  the  pattern 
impression.  The  subject  will  be  treated  in  accordance  with  these 
considerations,  starting  with  a  single  pattern  wheel .  Suppose  that 
the  circumference  of  the  pattern  wheel  divides  a  whole  number  of  1 
times  —  that  is,  divides  integrally  —  into  the  circumference  of  the 
fabric.  Then  whatever  impressions  are  on  the  presser  will  fall  in 
line  with  the  wales  and  so  make  what  are  called  vertical  stripes. 
Now,  the  pattern  on  the  presser  is  not  changeable  without  recut- 
ting  th(^  pressed',  so  the  pattern  is  considered  to  be  fixed. 

Causes  of  Changes  in  the  Figures.  —  The  different  figures  in 
the  fabric  which  may  be  obtained  from  any  pattern  are  caused 
by  change  in  the  number  of  needles,  or  by  change  in  the  direction 
of  motion  of  the  machine.  Evidently,  change  in  the  direction 
of  motion  of  the  machine  changes  the  end  of  the  pattern  which 
conuvs  on  the  fabric  first  and  change  in  the  number  of  needles  tips 
the  stripes  out  of  their  vertical  position.  The  essential  part  of 
figure  designing  consists  of  the  few  simple  principles  which  con- 
nect these  changes  of  needles  and  of  motion  with  the  resulting 
changes  in  the  vertical  stripes. 

Definition  of  Pattern.  —  In  order  to  avoid  confusion  it  is 
necessary  to  untlerstand  clearly  what  each  term  means  and  to 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


211 


restrict  its  use  to  that  particular  meaning.  One  of  the  obstacles 
heretofore  in  the  way  of  a  clear  description  of  the  principles  of 
figure  designing  has  been  the  lack  of  such  understanding.  For 
instance,  it  has  been  customary  to  use  the  term  pattern  to  desig- 
nate both  the  impressions  on  the  circumference  of  the  presser  and 
the  figures  in  the  fabric  obtainable  with  it.  But  since  there  may 
be  at  least  as  many  of  these  figures  as  the  number  of  needles 
in  one  circumference  of  a  non-repeating  presser,  it  is  evidently 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  arrangement  of  impressions 
on  the  presser,  which  is  fixed,  and  the  result  in  the  fabric,  which 


Illustration  6. 

A  single  tuck  stitch  viewed  from  the  back  of  the  fabric. 
A  is  the  held  loop,  B  is  the  tuck  loop. 


is  variable.  Therefore,  it  is  advisable  to  restrict  the  term  pattern 
to  the  impressions  around  the  circumference  of  the  presser  and  to  its 
duplication  along  the  ribbon  of  fabric.  Moreover,  some  pressers 
are  sufficiently  large  to  contain  the  pattern  more  than  once,  so 
the  actual  pattern  is  any  successive  portion  of  the  circumference  of 
the  presser  or  of  the  ribbon  of  fabric  which  does  not  repeat  itself. 

Tuck  Stitch.  —  Illustration  6  shows  a  tuck  stitch  viewed  from 
the  back  of  the  fabric.    It  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  V-shaped  loop 


212 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


with  the  point  upward  and  a  long  loop  from  the  next  lower  course,.  lioi 
through  both  of  which  a  loop  from  the  next  higher  course  is  drawn.  \  f. 
The  term  tuck  stitch  is  also  used  to  indicate  either  the  inverted!  'it 
V-shaped  loop  or  the  long  loop.    In  order  to  avoid  confusion  it 
seems  advisable  to  restrict  the  term  tuck  stitch  to  the  combina- 
tion just  described,  to  call  the  inverted  V-shaped  loop  the  tuck 
loop  and  to  call  the  long  loop  the  held  loop.    This  agrees  well  with 
the  conventions  and  the  facts,  since  the  inverted  V-shaped  loop 
is  produced  at  what  is  called  the  tuck  feed  and  since  the  long  loop 
is  held  over  a  course  before  it  is  cleared. 

Illustration  7  shows  a  double-tuck  stitch  viewed  from  the  back 
of  the  fabric.    In  this  there  are  two  tuck  loops  and  the  held  loop 


Illustration  7. 

A  double  tuck  stitch  viewed  from  the  back  of  the  fabric.    A  is  the  held  loop. 
B  is  the  first  tuck  loop.    C  is  the  second  tuck  loop. 

is  carried  over  two  courses  before  it  is  cleared.  When  the  tuck 
stitch  contains  more  than  one  tuck  loop,  these  are  numbered 
in  the  order  of  their  formation,  so  in  Illustration  7  the  longest 
tiick  loop  is  No.  1  and  the  shortest  one  is  No.  2.  The  longest  loop 
of  all  remains  the  held  loop. 

Illustration  8  shows  four  adjoining  tucks  in  the  same  course 
viewed  from  the  back  of  the  fabric.  Each  held  loop  is  like  the 
one  in  the  single  tuck,  but  the  tuck  loop  appears  as  a  long  loose 
thread  on  the  back  of  the  fabric. 

Before  the  stitches  are  further  discussed,  it  should  be  stated 
that  these  sketches  are  diagrammatic  and  that  the  actual  stitches 
would  not  always  be  recognized  from  sketches  of  this  kind. 
Indeed,  one  of  the  remarkable  things  about  tuck-stitch  combina- 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels  213 

tions  is  how  different  they  look  from  what  is  expected.  This 
introduces  one  of  the  principal  characteristics  of  tuck  stitches, 
the  distortion  which  they  produce  in  the  fabric. 


Illustration  8. 

Back  view  of  four  successive  single  tucks  in  the  same  course.    A,  A,  A,  A  are 
the  held  loops.    B  is  the  floated  loop  resulting  from  the  four  tuck  loops. 

Fabric  Distortion  due  to  Tuck  Stitches 

In  plain  fabric  one  of  the  requirements  for  good  fabric  is  to 
have  the  stitches  all  alike.  But  consideration  of  Illustration  6, 
single  tuck,  shows  that  if  the  yarn  is  fed  uniformly,  the  tuck  loop 
will  be  too  long  and  the  held  loop  will  be  too  short.  Consequently 
tuck  stitches  pucker  the  fabric  in  the  locality  of  the  tucks.  The 
general  effect  is  to  shorten  the  fabric  along  the  wales  and  widen 
it  along  the  courses.  For  this  reason  smaller-size  cylinders  are 
needed  for  tuck  work  than  for  plain  work.  The  extent  of  the 
change  depends  largely  on  the  proportion  of  tuck  stitches  to 
plain  stitches.  Some  designs  contain  so  few  tucks  that  the  widen- 
ing is  inappreciable. 

It  is  evident  that  the  held  loop  has  a  tendency  to  steal  some 
yarn  from  its  adjoining  loops  in  the  same  course;  and,  although  it 
is  not  so  evident,  still  it  is  just  as  true,  that  the  tuck  loop  has  a 


214 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


tendency  to  lend  some  yarn  to  the  adjoining  loops  in  its  course. 
Therefore,  as  a  general  rule,  loops  next  to  held  loops  in  the  same 
course  are  short,  and  loops  next  to  tuck  loops  in  the  same  course  are 
long.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  series  of  tucks  close 
together  may  produce  a  different  effect  than  that  produced  by 
one  isolated  tuck  stitch.  Indeed,  the  variations  due  to  stitch 
distortion  alone  are  too  numerous  to  classify. 

Tuck-stitch  Limits 

Necessary  to  clear  Held  Loops.  —  It  was  shown  that  the  tuck 
stitch  involves  the  drawing  of  a  loop  through  the  tuck  loop  and 
the  held  loop.  In  other  words,  unless  the  tuck  loop  and  held 
loop  are  cleared,  there  can  be  no  tuck  stitch.  This  is  true  prac- 
tically as  well  as  theoretically,  since  the  needle  must  be  cleared 
or  else  it  or  the  loops  on  it  must  break.  Consequently,  the 
strength  of  the  yarn  is  a  factor  which  determines  how  many  tuck 
loops  may  be  carried  on  one  needle.  The  strength  of  the  needle 
is  generally  sufficient,  provided  the  burden  of  loops  can  be 
thoroughly  cleared  within  reasonable  time,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
clear  many  loops  at  a  time,  and  failure  to  clear  them  allows  so 
many  loops  to  accumulate  on  the  needle  that  their  combined 
strength  ultimately  bends  or  breaks  it.  From  five  to  seven  tucks 
on  the  needle,  according  to  the  yarn  and  the  machine,  is  con- 
sidered the  practical  limit. 

The  number  of  adjoining  tucks  along  a  course  is  limited  in  a 
different  way.  Consideration  of  Illustration  8  shows  the  tuck 
loop  to  be  a  long  loose  loop  on  the  back  of  the  fabric.  In  reality, 
the  loop  is  longer  than  it  is  showTi,  for  two  reasons:  one  is  that 
the  fabric  generally  narrows  on  leaving  the  needles,  which  makes 
the  loop  longer  by  comparison;  and  the  other  is  that  there  was  as 
much  yam  supplied  to  this  loop  as  to  the  four  stitches  which  it 
crosses.  The  result  is  that  the  back  of  the  fabric  is  not  only 
unsightly,  but  these  loops  catch  and  tear  in  use,  which  makes  the 
fabric  less  durable  than  it  would  be  otherwise.  Six  adjoining 
tucks  along  a  course  is  considered  the  practical  limit. 

The  Tuck  Loop  is  kept  out  of  the  Face  of  the  Fabric 

Examination  of  any  of  Illustrations  6,  7  and  8  shows  that  the 
tuck  loop  is  kept  on  the  back  of  the  fabric.  This  is  not  of  much 
importance  when  the  yarn  is  all  of  the  same  color,  but  when 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


215 


different  colored  threads  are  used,  it  affords  an  opportunity  for 
keeping  the  tucked  color  out  of  the  face  at  intervals.  This  in- 
troduces the  customary  arrangement  of  feeds.  We  have  to 
start  with:  a  tuck  must  be  cleared;  the  number  of  adjoining 
tucks  both  horizontally  and  vertically  is  limited;  and  two  differ- 
ent colors  are  generally  used.  If  it  were  not  for  the  first  two  con- 
ditions, the  idea  would  at  once  suggest  itself  to  use  two  colors 


Illustration  9. 

Face  view  of  a  white  block  in  a  mixed  field.     The  floated  threads  are  seen 
behind  the  white  held  loops. 


of  marked  contrast,  say  black  and  white,  and  to  reverse  them 
alternately  from  face  to  back.  This  would  make,  say,  a  black 
figure  on  a  white  field,  which  constitutes  a  distinct  design.  But 
since  the  number  of  successive  tucks  in  either  direction  is  ad- 
visably not  over  six,  the  greatest  extent  of  the  figure  or  of  any 
part  of  the  field  would  be  six  stitches  in  height  and  in  width, 
and  even  that  size  is  accompanied  with  much  puckering.  The 
other  alternative  is  to  keep  the  first  color  in  the  face,  to  keep  the 
second  color  in  the  face  part  of  the  time,  —  when  it  combines  with 
the  first  color  to  make  a  mixed  field,  —  and  to  throw  the  second 
color  to  the  back  during  the  rest  of  the  time  in  order  to  leave  the 


216 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


first  color  entirely  in  the  face  for  a  short  interval  to  form  the 
small  solid  figure.  Illustration  9  shows  the  face  of  a  piece  of 
fabric  made  in  this  way.  The  black  thread  is  thrown  back  out 
of  the  mLxed  field  in  order  to  leave  the  white  exclusively  on  the 
face  to  form  the  rectangular  figure.  The  equipment  necessary 
to  produce  this  is  one  tuck  pressure  alternating  with  a  plain 
presser,  which  is  the  combination  used  in  most  figure  designing 
when  colors  are  used  and  even  when  they  are  not.  Evidently 
this  requires  an  even  number  of  feeds,  2,  4,  6,  8,  etc.  To  reverse 
the  colors  at  the  feeds  reverses  the  color  of  the  figure  hut  leaves  the 
field  unchanged,  since  both  threads  combine  to  form  the  field. 

Relation  of  Pattern  Wheel  and  Yarn.  —  Since  one  color  re- 
mains in  the  face  all  of  the  time,  the  plain  presser  operates  im- 
mediately after  that  color  is  fed,  as  it  does  with  plain  fabric. 
Consequently,  the  tuck  presser  operates  on  the  needles  im- 
mediately after  the  feeding  of  the  yarn  which  is  sometimes 
thro\Mi  on  the  back  of  the  fabric. 

The  use  of  colors  is  not  necessary,  since  the  contrast  between 
the  tuck  and  the  plain  stitches  shows  the  design  clearly  enough 
for  most  purposes  and  sometimes  more  pleasingly  than  with 
the  assistance  of  colors. 

The  effect  produced  in  the  fabric  by  the  pattern  is  probably 
best  called  the  design.  The  design,  like  the  pattern,  is  that  portion 
of  the  fabric  which  entirely  repeats  itself.  It  follows  then  that 
there  are  no  fractional  designs. 

The  design  is  composed  of  two  parts,  the  figure,  and  its  hack- 
ground,  the  field. 

The  main  technical  feature  of  figure  design  is  the  controlled 
disposition  of  the  tucks  in  the  field,  which  control  embraces  the 
size  of  the  figure  and  of  the  field,  the  shape  and  position  of  the 
figure,  and  its  relation  to  the  top  of  the  fabric. 

Almost  any  knitter  can  make  a  design  by  filing  nicks  in  a 
presser  and  putting  it  on  the  machine,  just  as  almost  any  cook 
can  make  a  cake  by  mixing  flour,  sugar,  eggs  and  baking  powder 
and  putting  the  mixture  in  the  oven.  But  it  takes  a  fairly  good 
knitter  to  nick  the  presser  so  as  to  obtain  the  exact  design  de- 
sired, just  as  it  takes  a  fairly  good  cook  to  mix  batter  which 
will  turn  out  a  predetermined  kind  of  cake. 

Learning  to  Design.  —  The  object  of  this  discussion  is  to  en- 
able the  knitter  to  know  how  to  nick  the  presser  in  order  to 
have  the  design  come  out  just  as  he  desires,  instead  of  upside 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


217 


down,  backward  or  entirely  different  from  that  which  he  had 
planned.  It  is  exact  knowledge  such  as  this  which  the  knitter 
needs,  and  it  cannot  be  obtained  without  a  certain  amount  of 
mental  effort.  However,  if  that  effort  is  well  directed,  the  sub- 
ject should  be  learned  readily  and  retained  permanently.  Both 
of  these  objects  may  be  accomplished  by  learning  first  how  to 
work  out  the  principles;  second,  by  learning  the  principles;  and 
last,  by  learning  the  application  of  them;  and  then  remembering 
these  divisions  in  the  same  order.  The  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples involves  the  most  details  and  so  is  easily  forgotten;  more- 
over, even  when  remembered,  the  necessity  for  use  may  be  on 
some  unfamiliar  type  of  machine,  so  the  principles  themselves 
will  be  needed  in  order  to  work  out  the  application.  Conse- 
quently, the  principles  are  the  essentials,  but  disuse  may  cause 
even  them  to  be  forgotten.  However,  if  the  method  of  deriv- 
ing the  principles  is  remembered,  then  whenever  any  question 
regarding  figure  design  arises,  the  knitter  can  without  books  or 
assistance  start  right  at  the  bottom  and  derive  not  only  the 
principles  but  the  application  of  them  to  any  machine.  The 
subject  is  developed  in  line  with  the  above  suggestions,  by  estab- 
lishing unmistakable  terms,  by  using  the  analogy  of  the  printing 
wheel  on  the  ribbon,  and  by  gradually  introducing  the  varia- 
tions which  may  be  produced  with  the  fixed  pattern. 

The  size  of  the  design  is  measured  in  stitches,  since  this  unit 
has  a  fixed  connection  with  the  needles,  whereas  any  other  unit 
has  not. 

Consider  that  from  a  piece  of  fabric  knit  with  two  feeds  — 
one,  tuck,  and  the  other,  plain  —  the  following  pattern  is  ob- 
tained by  copying  a  tuck  course  until  repetition  of  the  pattern 
begins: 

OOOOOOOOOOOOOXOXOXOXOOOXOXOXOXOOOOOOOXOXOOOOOOOXOX 

The  ciphers  represent  plain  stitches  and  the  cross-marks  indi- 
cate tuck  stitches,  showing  altogether  fifty  needles  in  the  pat- 
tern. It  is  desired  to  know  what  designs  are  possible  with  this 
pattern. 

Winding  Strip  Pattern  to  Make  the  Design.  —  If  the  above- 
mentioned  pattern  is  repeated  several  times  on  a  long  strip  of 
paper  equally  "divided  in  spaces  corresponding  to  needles,  and 
then  this  piece  of  paper  is  wound  helically  to  form  a  tube,  the 
cross  marks  will  show  different  figures  according  to  the  diameter 


218 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


of  the  tube,  among  which  figures  will  be  those  shown  in  Illus- 
trations 10,  11,  12,  13,  14.  But  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  ar- 
range and  hold  such  a  long  strip,  so  a  substitute  may  be  made 
for  No.  10,  say,  by  copying  the  50-needle  pattern  on  cross-section 
paper  so  that  the  same  needles  fall  in  the  same  vertical  lines,  as 


13 


Models  of  tubular  pattern  fabrics.  The  designs  are  such  as  are  obtainable 
with  the  pattern  shown  in  20  by  change  in  the  number  of  needles  and  the 
direction  of  motion  of  the  machine.  The  results  could  be  duplicated  practi- 
cally with  a  two-feed  machine,  one  feed  having  a  tuck  presser  cut  like  one 
row  of  20  and  the  other  feed  ha\dng  a  plain  presser.  The  models  are  not 
shown  for  Nos.  25  to  30  inclusive. 

No.  10.  Vertical  stripes  caused  by  the  use  of  a  number  of  needles  equal  to 
a  multiple  of  the  pattern.  The  fabric  motion  is  right-hand.  No.  20  is  the 
development  of  No.  10,  and  would  be  unchanged  for  left-hand  motion. 

No.  11.  Inclined  stripes  caused  by  the  use  of  slight  overlap  (needles  one 
less  than  a  multiple  of  the  pattern).  The  motion  is  right-hand.  No.  21  is  the 
development. 

No.  12.  Stripes  inclined  diagonally  in  two  directions,  caused  by  the  use  of 
overlap  of  half  a  pattern  division  (needles  five  less  than  a  multiple  of  the  pat- 
tern).   The  motion  is  right-hand.    No.  22  is  the  development. 

No.  13.  Inclined  figure  caused  by  the  use  of  a  number  of  needles  nearly 
one  pattern  division  less  than  a  multiple  of  the  pattern  (needles  nine  less  — 
the  division  is  ten).    No.  23  is  the  development. 

No.  14.  Vertical  figure  caused  by  the  use  of  a  number  of  needles  one  divi- 
sion less  than  a  multiple  of  pattern  (needles  ten  less).  The  motion  is  right- 
hand.  No.  24  is  the  development.  Notice  that  the  front  of  the  pattern, 
indicated  by  the  double  tuck,  is  uppermost. 

in  Illustration  20.  If  this  is  cut  out  and  the  ends  are  curved  to 
meet,  the  stripes  will  be  just  like  those  in  Illustration  10.  Evi- 
dently, there  are  50  needles  in  the  circumference  the  same  as 
in  the  pattern.  From  this  comes  the  conclusion  that  when  the 
number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  is  the  same  as  the  number  in 
the  pattern  the  design  consists  of  vertical  stripes.  Now  it  is 
evident  that  two  strips  just  like  Illustration  20  m'ight  be  pieced 
end  to  end,  or  three  or  any  number,  and  still  the  design  would 
be  vertical  stripes,  from  which  comes  the  conclusion  that  when 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


219 


the  pattern  divides  the  needles  integrally  the  design  consists  of  ver- 
tical repetitions  of  the  elements  of  the  pattern. 

Development.  —  When  a  tubular  figure  is  cut  lengthwise  and 
spread  out,  it  is  called  the  development  of  the  original  figure. 
Consequently,  Illustration  20  is  the  development  of  Illustration 
10,  also  21  is  the  development  of  11  and  so  on,  each  development 


24 

No.  20.    Development  of  No.  10.  No.  21.    Development  of  No.  11. 

No.  22.    Development  of  No.  12.  No.  23.    Development  of  No.  13. 

No.  24.    Development  of  No.  14. 


being  designated  by  the  number  which  is  ten  greater  than  that 
of  the  figure. 

Decreasing  the  Number  of  Needles  in  the  Cylinder.  —  Con- 
sidering Illustration  21  the  observer  will  notice  that  it  is  made  by 
repeating  the  pattern  over  itself,  but  that  each  repetition  start- 
ing from  the  lower  right  corner  is  one  needle  to  the  left  of 


220 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


that  above  it,  so  that  the  ends  have  a  step-Uke  appearance.  If 
the  piece  of  paper  is  cut  out  and  the  ends  are  matched  so  that 
the  double  courses  marked  A,  B,  C,  D  meet,  then  development 
21  will  be  like  tube  11,  but  the  distance  around  the  tube  will  be 
only  49  needles,  which  is  one  less  than  the  number  in  the  pattern. 
Evidently,  the  vertical  stripes  are  tipped  with  the  bottoms  to 
the  right,  in  which  direction  the  fabric  is  supposed  to  be  moving, 
since  the  double  course  marked  0  is  free,  as  if  the  yarn  were 
raveled  to  that  point.  If  other  pieces  like  21  but  with  50  needles 
were  put  end  to  end  with  21,  and  formed  into  a  tube  with  cor- 
responding terminal  courses  meeting  as  they  do  in  Illustration 
21,  then  the  number  of  needles  might  be  99,  149,  199,  etc., 
always  1  less  than  a  whole  number  of  patterns,  and  the  inclina- 
tion would  be  the  same  as  in  21,  which  shows  that  when  the 
number  of  needles  is  one  less  than  an  exact  multiple  of  the 
pattern,  the  upper  end  of  the  vertical  stripes  falls  back  from 
the  direction  of  motion  of  the  fabric.  That  is,  the  front  part  of 
the  pattern  falls  back  over  the  front  part  of  the  pattern  previously 
knit,  or  overlap^j  it. 

Development  22  has  five  needles  less  than  the  pattern,  and  it 
will  be  noticed  that  the  inclination  has  gone  so  far  that  the 
stripes  begin  to  mix. 

Development  23  has  9  needles  less  than  the  pattern  and  it  is 
evident  that  a  figure  is  beginning  to  form  from  the  gathering 
together  of  one  element  from  each  stripe  with  the  front  of  the 
pattern  uppermost. 

Condition  for  Desired  Design.  —  Development  24  has  10 
needles  less  than  the  pattern  and  shows  the  figure  completely 
formed.  In  this  the  pattern  may  be  read  horizontally  to  the 
left  along  the  courses,  or  vertically  down  the  wales.  This  is 
the  result  generally  sought  in  figure  designing  —  that  is,  one  in 
which  the  pattern  or  horizontal  portion  is  repeated  vertically 
in  the  figure.  To  obtain  this,  the  pattern  is  divided  into  sec- 
tions of  equal  length,  and  the  impressions  in  each  section,  or 
division,  are  arranged  with  some  sort  of  symmetry  about  the 
middle  of  the  division.  It  will  be  noticed  that  division  5  is 
blank.  This  is  to  make  a  break  in  the  vertical  effect,  which 
would  otherwise  still  be  a  vertical  stripe  (although  an  irregular 
one)  since  it  is  made  up  of  portions  of  each  division  of  the  pattern. 

Reversing  Motion.  —  Now  consider  the  machine  to  contain 
50,  or  100,  or  150  needles  making  vertical  stripes,  except  that 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


221 


it  turns  in  the  opposite  direction  so  that  the  fabric  moves  to  the 
left  side  instead  of  to  the  right.  Note,  however,  that  since  it  is 
agreed  to  call  the  part  of  the  pattern  which  first  makes  its  im- 
pression the  front,  the  beginning  of  the  pattern  is  now  on  the 
left  instead  of  on  the  right.  In  other  words,  when  the  motion 
is  reversed,  the  front  of  the  pattern  is  also  reversed.  Evidently, 
with  the  number  of  needles  just  given  the  effect  in  the  fabric 
will  be  vertical  lines  as  before,  so  that  Illustration  20  will  still 
represent  the  development. 

For  one  needle  taken  out,  the  development  is  like  that  in 
Illustration  25,  and  for  10  needles  taken  out,  the  development  is 
like  that  in  Illustration  26. 

From  Illustrations  24  and  26  it  follows  as  it  did  for  motion  in 
the  opposite  direction  that  when  the  number  of  needles  in  the 
cylinder  fails  to  divide  by  the  number  in  the  pattern  by  one 
division  of  the  pattern,  then  the  divisions  of  the  pattern 
arrange  themselves  vertically  with  the  front  of  the  division  at 
the  top.  Therefore,  one  rule  holds  for  each  direction  of 
motion. 

Increasing  the  Number  of  Needles  in  the  Cylinder.  —  When 
the  total  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  is  one  division  of 
the  pattern  more  than  a  whole  number  of  patterns,  the  result  for 
right-hand  motion  is  show^n  by  Illustration  27,  and  for  left- 
hand  motion,  by  Illustration  28,  both  of  which  show  that  the 
front  of  the  pattern  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  figure. 

From  the  preceding  comes  the  general  fundamental  rule  of 
figure  designing.    The  divisions  of  the  -pattern  arrange  themselves 

vertically  with  the  front  (  ^^^^^^  \  yjJien  the  needles  in  the 
\downwara  j 

cylinder  are  one  division  {^^^^^^  ^  whole  number  of  patterns. 

Needle  Changes  of  More  than  One  Division.  —  So  far,  the 
change  in  the  total  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  has  not 
been  more  than  one  section  —  that  is,  10  needles  —  from  an 
equal  division  by  the  pattern.  If  the  change  extends  beyond 
one  division  of  needles,  the  figure  inclines  and  reforms  into  two 
figures  when  the  discrepancy  from  an  equal  division  by  the 
pattern  is  two  divisions,  as  it  is  seen  for  right-hand  motion  in 
Illustration  29  for  needles  two  divisions  less  than  one  pattern, 
and  in  Illustration  30  for  needles  two  divisions  more  than  one 
pattern. 


o 

No.  25.  Development  of  a  model  such  as  No.  11  would  be  with  left-hand 
motion.  Comparison  with  21  shows  that  reversal  of  the  motion  reverses  the 
initial  inclination  of  the  stripes. 

No.  26.  Development  of  a  model  such  as  No.  14  would  be  with  left-hand 
motion.  Comparison  with  14  and  24  shows  that  reversal  of  the  direction  of 
motion  inverts  the  figure  about  a  horizontal  axis  in  its  plane. 

No.  27.  Development  of  a  model  such  as  No.  14  would  be  for  needles  one 
division  more  than  a  multiple  of  the  pattern  and  for  right-hand  motion. 

No.  28.  Same  as  No.  27,  but  for  left-hand  motion.  Comparisons  of  24 
with  28  and  of  26  with  27  show  that  reversal  of  both  the  lap  and  the  direction 
of  motion  leaves  the  figure  undisturbed. 

No.  29.  Development  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  number  of  needles  two 
divisions  less  than  a  multiple  of  the  pattern  and  right-hand  motion.  Notice 
the  division  of  the  pattern  into  two  figures  instead  of  one. 

No.  30.  Development  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  number  of  needles  two 
divisions  more  than  a  multiple  of  the  pattern  and  right-hand  motion.  Notice 
the  division  of  the  pattern  into  two  figures  instead  of  one.  (222) 


Figui'e  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


223 


Advantages  of  Paper  Strip  Method.  —  The  above  method  of 
connecting  the  pattern  and  the  design  should  be  remembered, 
for  it  affords  a  convenient  way  of  working  from  the  design 
right  back  to  the  tube  of  fabric  with  the  direction  of  motion  and 
Qeedle  relation  clearly  shown.  Indeed,  this  method  is  preferable 
to  working  exclusively  on  the  machine,  since  machines  are  re- 
stricted to  a  narrow  range  of  variation,  whereas  this  paper  method 
is  subject  to  all  of  the  variations  possible;  moreover,  it  is  graphical, 
even  to  the  duphcation  of  an  equivalent  tube,  and  best  of  all,  it 
proves  what  will  be  obtained,  whereas  the  ordinary  method  of 
drawing  the  figure  in  a  rectangle  is  not  susceptible  of  proof  that 
the  result  in  the  fabric  will  be  as  it  appears  in  the  plan. 

The  variations  due  to  more  extensive  overlap  may  also  be 
shown  by  this  method,  but  they  are  more  readily  shown  by  the 
following  one  which  is  substantially  an  abbreviation  of  the  one 
just  given,  and  is  advantageous  in  that  it  is  much  quicker,  and 
does  not  require  cross-section  paper.  It  does  not,  however,  show 
the  slight  variations  obtaii;iable  by  a  change  of  needles  between 
whole  divisions  of  the  pattern. 

Numerical  Method 

For  convenience  consider  a  pattern  having  five  divisions  of  ten 
needles  each,  just  such  as  has  been  used.  The  width  of  the  pat- 
tern ma}^  be  any  number  of  feeds.  Number  these  divisions  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  beginning  with  the  one  which  first  makes  its  impression. 
Suppose  that  the  machine  has  ten  needles,  which  is  one  division. 
Then  the  first  division  wdll  just  finish  the  first  revolution,  the  sec- 
ond division  will  just  finish  the  second  revolution,  etc.,  so  that 
if  the  fabric  is  cut  lengthwise  between  the  first  and  the  tenth 
needle,  it  will  show  the  pattern  in  the  numerical  order  of  its 
divisions  with  number  one  at  the  bottom:  Illustration  32. 

Now,  consider  that  the  machine  has  20  needles,  which  is  two 
divisions.  Then  the  fii'st  revolution  will  take  the  first  two  divi- 
sions, the  second  revolution  will  take  the  third  and  fourth  divi- 
sions, and  the  third  revolution  will  take  the  last  division  and 
the  first  one  over  again  in  order  to  fill  up.  Consequently,  when 
the  tube  is  cut  open  and  flattened  out,  the  different  divisions 
will  appear  on  it  as  in  Illustration  33.  It  is  evident  that 
four  straight  lines  will  not  bound  this  design,  but  that  six  are 
required.  The  reason  for  this  is  clearly  that  the  number  of 
divisions  in  the  pattern  is  not  evenly  divisible  by  two,  the  num- 


224 


The  Scieuce  of  Knitting 


bor  of  divisions  of  lap.  In  each  of  these  cases,  and  in  those  that 
immediately  follow,  the  flattened  piece  of  fabric  is  a  develop- 
ment of  the  tube,  with  the  division  following  a  wale,  instead  of 
following  the  end  of  the  pattern  as  it  is  shown  in  Illustra- 
tions 21  to  24.  It  is  noticeable  that  when  there  is  one  division 
of  needles  there  is  only  one  design  of  one  figure;  but  when  there 
are  two  divisions,  there  are  two  designs  each  composed  of  two 
figures. 

Now  consider  the  machine  to  contain  three  divisions  of  needles, 
that  is,  30.  The  fabric  appears  like  Illustration  34.  Evidently, 
there  are  three  different  designs,  each  composed  of  three  groups 
of  figures. 

For  four  divisions  of  needles  there  are  really  four  different 
designs,  as  Illustration  35  indicates;  but  they  all  look  like  Il- 
lustration 32,  except  that  now  division  1  is  at  the  top  instead 
of  at  the  bottom. 

Of  course,  when  the  machine  contains  five  divisions  of  needles, 
the  fabric  shows  vertical  stripes  corresponding  to  each  section 
as  Illustration  20  shows. 

For  six  divisions  of  needles,  Illustration  36,  the  fabric  shows 
just  what  it  did  for  one  division.  This  may  be  seen  by  a  com- 
parison of  36  and  32  which  are  put  close  together  for  the  purpose. 

Range  of  Designs.  —  Moreover,  it  will  be  found  that  all  of 
the  vertical  figures  obtainable  with  any  number  of  needles  are 
shown  by  the  changes  between  one  division  and  the  total  num- 
ber of  divisions  in  the  pattern.  Of  course,  the  inclination  of 
the  stripes  is  not  shown  within  that  range,  since  all  of  the  stripes 
do  not  appear  until  the  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  is 
equal  to  the  number  of  needles  in  the  pattern.  But  one  more 
division  is  enough  to  give  all  of  the  incliaations  of  the  stripes. 
Moreover,  a  conglomeration  is  obtainable  with  a  number  of 
needles  less  than  one  division.  So,  in  general,  all  obtainable  de- 
signs including  all  elements  of  the  pattern  are  embraced  by  a  range  of 
needles  from  zero  to  one  division  more  than  the  length  of  the  pattern. 

Real  and  Apparent  Design.  —  Before  going  farther  with  the 
above  understandmg  of  the  word  design,  it  is  necessary  to  dis- 
tinguish the  real  from  the  apparent  design.  Take  Illustration 
33  for  instance.  It  shows  two  designs,  each  with  two  figures, 
of  which  one  is  the  reverse  of  the  other.  Now  refer  to  37  which 
is  the  same  as  33,  except  that  the  piece  of  fabric  is  larger,  and 
affords  a  more  comprehensive  view  of  the  designs.  Reading 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


225 


Numerical  Diagrams 
For  explanation  see  Numerical  Method,  page  223. 


Arrangement  of  pat- 
tern divisions  in 
the  fabric  when  the 
number  of  needles 
is  just  one  pattern 
division. 


4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

_1_ 

5 

4 

3 

2 

J_ 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

_1_ 

' 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

36.  Ditto  six  pattern  di- 
visions. 


5 

4 

3 

2 

J_ 

"5" 

3 

t 

1 

Arrangement  of  pat- 
tern divisions  when 
the  number  of  nee- 
dles in  the  cylinder 
is  two  pattern  di- 
visions. 


3 

_2_ 

1 

0 

3 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

"T 

4 

3 

2 

1 

"T 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

"T 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

37.  Ditto  seven  pat- 
tern divisions. 


5 

: 

_2_ 

ii 

34. 

4 

_L 

2 

JJ 

1  ^ 

3 

2 

1 

Arrangement  of  pat- 
tern divisions  when 
the  number  of  nee- 
dles in  the  cylinder 
is  three  pattern  di- 
visions. 


1 

5 

4  1  3 

2 

1 

5 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

_3_ 

2 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

1  ' 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

2 

1 

5  1 

4 

3 

2 

1 

38.  Ditto  eight  pat- 
tern divisions. 


Ditto  four  pattern  di- 
visions. 


1 

5  1  4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

'  5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2 

T" 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

.5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

5 

4 

3 

2  ■ 

5 

4 

3 

2 

3 

I' 

1 

5 

4 

3 

T 

4 

2- 

5 

4 

30.  Ditto  nine 
pattern  di- 
visions. 


Illustrations  32  to  39,  inclusive. 


226 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


the  numbers  upward  in  vertical  columns,  one  sees  that  the  group- 
ing 24135  constantly  repeats  itself  over  the  whole  extent  of  the 
fabric.  Consequentl}^,  this  apparent  design  fills  the  condition 
for  a  design,  namely,  that  it  is  an  effect  which  entirely  repeats 
itself.  In  short,  as  far  as  appearances  are  concerned,  there 
is  but  one  single  figure  design  for  each  case  in  which  the  number 
of  needles  is  a  multiple  of  the  pattern  division.  Illustration  38 
shows  this  for  Illustration  34,  as  does  39  for  35. 

Key  to  Illustrations  ii  to  28,  Inclusive 


Overlap. 
Needle  remain- 
der less  than  a 
whole  number 
of  patterns. 

Right-hand  Motion 

Left-hand  Motion 

^  r- 

Illustrations 
11,12,13,14, 
21,22,23,24 

Illustrations 
25,26 

Underlap. 
Remainder 
more    than  a 
whole  number 
of  patterns. 

Illustration 
27 

Illustration 

28 

The  direction  of  motion  and  lap  is  shown  on  the  upper  and  left 
margins  of  the  table. 

The  diagram  in  the  right  corner  of  the  squares  is  recognized 
as  the  diagrani  produced  by  the  given  pattern.  The  position 
of  the  diagram  is  for  lap  of  one  division  according  to  the  direction 
of  lap  and  the  direction  of  motion  given. 

The  diagram  in  the  left  corner  of  the  squares  shows  how  the 
vertical  hues  start  to  incline  when  a  sUght  change  in  the  direction 
of  lap  is  made  from  an  equal  division  of  cyUnder  needles  by  the 
pattern. 

It  is  evident  that  whereas  a  change  of  either  direction  of 
lap  or  direction  of  motion  reverses  the  position  of  the  design 
about  a  horizontal  axis,  the  change  of  both  together  leaves  the 
design  undisturbed. 


Figure  Designing  with  Patcern  Wheels 


227 


Inclination  of  Designs.  —  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the 
relative  arrangement  of  these  apparent  designs  is  different  for 
each  change  of  needles  amounting  to  a  pattern  division.  For 
one  division,  or  six  divisions,  or  eleven  divisions,  etc.,  each, 
the  design  rises  to  the  right  above  the  preceding  one  by  the 
width  of  the  pattern  (foi* right-hand  motion  of  the  fabric).  But 
when  the  number  of  needles  is  two  divisions,  seven  divisions, 
twelve  divisions,  etc.,  the  direction  of  inclination  is  the  opposite 
and  the  second  rises  two  widths  above  the  first,  and  so  on. 
Illustrations  from  36  to  39  inclusive  show  the  relative  arrange- 
ments of  the  apparent  designs  for  five  section  patterns.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  try  to  remember  these  relations,  or  even  the 
groupings.  But  it  is  advisable  to  remember  the  method,  for  then 
all  of  this  information  may  be  quickly  obtained  when  needed, 
and  without  the  necessity  of  sketching  the  actual  design.  This 
method  afTords  a  convenient  way  of  telling  what  the  design  will 
be  for  a  lap  of  any  number  of  divisions. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  the  width  of  the  strip  pattern  may  be 
any  number  of  feeds.  But  a  certain  length  was  taken,  namely 
five  divisions  of  10  needles  each,  which  length  has  not  changed. 
Therefore,  if  one  tuck  feed  is  used,  the  design  will  be  five  tuck 
courses  high;  if  two  feeds  are  used,  the  design  will  be  ten  tuck 
courses  high ;  and  in  general  the  height  of  the  design  in  tuck  courses 
will  be  the  number  of  tuck  feeds  multiplied  by  the  number  of  divisions. 

Design  Calculations 

The  mathematical  part  of  figure  designing  is  the  big  stumbling 
block  to  learning  how  to  design  from  books.  However,  the  cal- 
culations in  connection  with  figure  designing  are  very  simple, 
as  the  following  explanation  will  show. 

There  are  four  points  to  consider,  namely: 
The  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder. 
The  width  of  the  design  (horizontally). 
The  length  of  the  pattern. 
The  height  of  the  design. 

Evidently,  the  easiest  way  to  consider  them  is  one  at  a  time. 
The  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder.  A  change  in  this  number 
of  one  or  two  per  cent  is  allowable  in  leaded  spring-needle  ma- 
chines; but  other  machines  are  changeable  only  by  the  substi- 


228 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


tution  of  a  new  cylinder,  which  is  expensive  and  troublesome. 
Consequently,  it  is  generally  necessary  to  adapt  the  design  to 
the  number  of  needles  in  the  machine,  and  it  is  advisable  to  do 
so  even  in  the  case  of  leaded-needle  machines,  since  changing  to 
a  certain  number  of  needles  and  retaining  that  number  is  some- 
w^hat  troublesome.  Many  users  of  knitting  machinery  facilitate 
the  manufacture  of  pattern  fabric  by  having  their  machines  made 
originally  with  a  suitable  number  of  needles  in  each  cylinder.  (It 
will  be  shown  later  what  numbers  are  suitable.)  Since,  then, 
the  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  is  sometimes  practically 
unchangeable,  and  at  others  changeable  only  inconveniently, 
this  number  is  the  basis  of  the  calculations.  Therefore,  given 
designs  should  be  modified  accordingly,  or  new  designs  should 
be  made  accordingly.  The  numbers  of  needles  in  different 
cylinders  are  generally  known  to  the  man  who  makes  or  modi- 
fies the  design,  or  may  be  procured  from  the  manufacturers  of 
the  machines  if  the  machines  are  not  where  the  needles  may  be 
counted.  This  book  gives  the  numbers  of  needles  for  some 
types  of  machine. 

Illustration  40  w^U  help  the  balance  of  the  explanation.  Dia- 
gram A  1  shows  a  developed  needle  line  —  that  is,  the  circular 
needle  line  cut  open  and  spread  out  straight.  It  might  con- 
tain any  number  of  needles,  but  here  for  convenience  it  con- 
tains 65,  each  one  represented  by  a  vertical  space. 

The  Width  of  the  Design.  —  This  must  divide  into  the  num- 
ber of  needles  in  the  cylinder,  that  is,  into  65  in  this  case.  If 
the  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  is  not  divisible,  that  is,  if 
the  number  is  a  prime  number,  then  vertical  figures  cannot  be 
made.  Diagonal  effects  may  be  produced,  but  they  are  not 
considered  in  this  discussion.  Therefore,  if  the  number  of 
cylinder  needles  is  not  divisible,  the  cylinder  is  not  usable  for 
this  kind  of  designing.  But  in  this  case  the  number  is  divisible, 
since  65  may  be  divided  by  5  and  by  13.  These  are  the  only 
widths  of  pattern  usable,  since  they  are  the  only  divisors  of  the 
number  of  needles.  For  illustration  select  5,  since  the  paper  is 
laid  off  in  groups  of  five.  Then  5  is  the  pattern  division,  since 
it  not  only  has  to  divide  into  the  number  of  needles  but  also 
into  the  pattern,  as  will  be  shown  later.  Moreover,  it  is  more 
convenient  to  continue  the  discussion  with  divisions  as  the 
measure,  instead  of  needles,  just  as  it  is  more  convenient  to  dis- 
cuss fortunes  in  thousands  of  dollars  instead  of  dollars  or  cents, 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels  229 


both  of  which  are  such  small  units  that  the  figures  would  be 
cumbersome. 

There  are  13  divisions  in  the  cylinder,  since  5  divides  into  65 
thirteen  times. 

The  Length  of  the  Pattern.  —  Now  it  has  been  repeatedly 
shown  that  the  pattern  must  not  divide  evenly  into  the  number 


r 

Illustration  40. 

Al  represents  a  developed  needle  line  containing  65  needles.  The  other  strips 
show  the  total  pattern  lengths  and  divisions  usable  with  65  needles.  Bl,  B2, 
B3  are  for  underlap.   C 1,  C2  are  for  overlap. 


of  needles  by  one  division.  Therefore,  the  pattern  must  divide 
into  12  divisions,  or  into  14  divisions,  which  numbers  are  one 
less  and  one  more  than  the  number  of  divisions  in  the  cylinder. 
Diagrams  B\,  B2  and  53  contain  12  divisions,  and  diagrams  CI 
and  C2  contain  14  divisions.  The  principal  use  of  these  diagrams 
is  to  make  clear  this  step  of  the  calculations,  which  is  the  con- 
fusing one  to  the  student.  It  should  be  thoroughly  understood, 
that  the  number  of  needles  is  not  changed  by  one  division. 
These  lengths  B  and  C  are  taken  merely  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
termining what  length  of  pattern  is  permissible.  The  reason 
for  taking  them  is  at  once  apparent;  for,  evidently,  if  the  pattern 


230 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


divides  these  lengths  without  a  remainder,  then  it  must  divide 
the  number  of  needles  with  a  remainder  of  just  one  division,  or 
one  design  width,  which  is  the  condition  to  be  met. 

The  B  diagrams  show  that  the  usual  patterns  for  underlap 
may  be  2,  3  or  4  divisions  in  length.  The  C  diagrams  show 
that  the  usable  patterns  for  overlap  may  be  2  or  7  divisions  in 
length.  The  inversion  of  the  design  caused  by  change  from 
overlap  to  underlap  is  shown  by  Illustrations  24  and  27,  and 
is  stated  in  the  general  rule  for  tuck  figure  design.  This  inver- 
sion of  the  design  is  one  of  the  considerations  in  the  selection 
of  the  lap. 

The  Height  of  the  Design.  —  This  is  the  other  consideration  in 
the  choice  of  the  lap.  It  is  expressed  in  courses  and  equals  the 
number  of  divisions  of  the  pattern  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  feeds.  The  diagrams  show  a  range  of  patterns  having  2,  3,  4 
and  7  divisions.  Suppose  four  feeds  are  to  be  used.  Then  the 
height  of  the  design  in  courses  may  be  either  8,  12,  16  or  28. 

This  is  all  there  is  to  customary  pattern  calculations,  when  the 
work  is  based  on  the  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder. 

Copying  or  modifying  a  given  design  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant parts  of  the  subject,  and  it  may  be  explained  by  follow- 
ing through  all  of  the  processes.  First,  however,  it  is  advisable 
to  understand  clearly  the  conventional  method  of  sketching 
designs. 

Representing  Tuck  Stitches.  —  It  is  customary  to  lay  out 
designs  on  cross-section  paper,  so  that  horizontal  rows  represent 
courses  and  vertical  rows  represent  wales.  When  the  squares 
contain  no  crosses,  the  diagram  represents  plain  fabric.  Then 
the  individual  squares  represent  loops  of  plain  fabric.  They  are 
frequently  considered  to  represent  stitches,  but  since  a  stitch  is 
a  combination  of  at  least  two  loops,  this  practice  causes  con- 
fusion when  it  is  necessary  to  reconcile  the  diagram  with  the 
fabric  which  it  represents.  It  should  be  thoroughly  understood, 
therefore,  that  before  any  crosses  are  made  on  the  diagram  the 
squares  represent  loops  of  plain  fabric,  and  when  a  cross  is  put 
in  a  square  it  means  that  what  would  have  been  a  loop  of  plain 
fabric  is  changed  to  a  tuck  portion  of  pattern  fabric.  This  cross 
does  not  make  the  diagram  look  like  the  fabric  which  it  repre- 
sents, for  several  reasons.  The  tuck  loop  remains  on  the  back 
of  the  fabric,  whereas  the  face  is  viewed.  The  loop  which  does 
appear  on  the  face  is  the  held  loop  which  belongs  in  the  next 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


231 


!  square  below  if  single  tuck,  antl  in  the  second  square  below  if 
double  tuck.  The  cross  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  loop 
in  that  position  is  more  prominent  than  the  others,  just  as  the 
conventional  sketches  of  tuck  stitches  do,  but  in  reality  the 
loops  alongside  of  the  marked  one  are  frequently  larger.  And 
finally,  the  stresses  caused  by  the  tucking  pull  the  wales  and 
courses  out  of  the  positions  which  they  would  occupy  in  plain 
fabric.  Consequently,  the  only  way  for  the  novice  to  see  the 
diagram  in  the  fabric  is  to  see  a  tuck  loop  represented  by  the 
cross,  in  the  place  of  a  corresponding  plain  loop  of  plain  fabric. 
At  first  it  may  be  necessary  to  turn  the  fabric  over  in  order  to 
make  sure  that  the  tuck  loop  is  there.  Inspection  against  the 
light  frequently  shows  the  tuck  loop  like  a  broad  arrow  head 
pointing  upward.  The  student  should  learn  to  look  at  fabric  in 
many  different  positions  and  in  many  different  lights,  for  it 
takes  thorough  acquaintance  to  prepare  one  for  understanding 
the  puzzling  combinations  which  are  possible. 

Showing  Plain  and  Tuck  Courses  in  Diagram.  —  It  is  custom- 
ary to  omit  the  plain  courses  from  the  diagrams,  for  several  good 
reasons,  such  as  to  save  time  and  space,  and  probably  best  of  all 
to  contract  the  diagram  vertically  by  omission  of  the  plain 
courses  so  that  it  is  nearly  proportional  to  the  result  in  the  fabric, 
which  is  reduced  vertically  by  the  narrowness  of  the  courses 
with  respect  to  the  wales,  and  by  the  shortening  and  widening 
caused  by  the  tucking.  But  in  spite  of  these  reasons  it  seems 
better,  especially  for  the  beginner,  to  show  all  courses  in  the 
diagram,  because  the  true  structural  representation  is  more 
desirable  than  the  exact  appearance  of  the  design;  and  because 
the  method  should  not  be  restricted  to  a  plain  presser  for  every 
second  feed,  but  should  accommodate  any  combination  of  feeds, 
so  that  the  knitter  may  not  only  be  able  to  make  novel  designs 
but  may  be  encouraged  to  do  so.  Accordingly,  the  diagrams  used 
in  this  book  show  all  courses,  but  it  is  to  be  understood  that 
the  design  will  appear  in  the  fabric  relatively  shorter  (vertically) 
than  it  is  in  the  diagram.  This  distortion  of  the  diagram  may 
be  obviated  by  using  paper  ruled  with  spaces  about  twice  as 
wide  as  they  are  high. 

Design  Should  not  Begin  and  End  with  the  Same  Kind  of 
Course.  —  A  consideration  which  really  belongs  to  the  question 
of  the  number  of  needles  is  of  so  much  importance  that  it  is 
mentioned  here  also.    Since  the  feeds  are  generally  used  in 


232 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


pairs,  the  height  of  the  diagram  must  be  an  even  number  of 
courses;  and  since  a  tuck  feed  is  followed  by  a  plain  feed,  every 
diagram  must  begin  with  a  tuck  course  and  end  with  a  plain 
course  or  vice  versa.  This  arrangement  of  the  feeds  in  pairs  re- 
lieves the  designer  from  remembering  that  the  ending  and  be- 
ginning of  the  diagram  must  be  with  a  different  kind  of  presser 
in  order  to  prevent  the  meeting  of  courses  of  the  same  kind 


Illustration  41, 


where  the  designs  join.  But  it  is  advisable  to  bear  this  in  mind 
when  every  other  feed  is  not  plain,  or  else  double  tucks  may 
occur  unintentionally  at  the  joining  of  the  designs. 

Illustration  41  shows  the  face  of  a  small  piece  of  flat  under- 
wear fabric  knit  with  a  tuck  figure  design.  The  portion  which 
came  last  from  the  needles  is  at  the  top. 

Since  this  is  a  small  piece  of  fabric,  it  is  impossible  to  trace 
the  pattern  along  the  courses  far  enough  to  copy  all  of  it;  and 
since  the  shape  is  not  tubular,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the 
number  of  feeds  by  raveling  the  threads  to  one  wale  and  count- 
ing them. 

Analyzing  Samples.  —  There  are  three  ways  in  which  this 
design  mny  be  duplicated.  One  way  is  to  ravel  as  many  courses 
as  the  design  has  courses,  and  to  mark  on  cross-section  paper 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


233 


each  tuck  stitch  in  the  order  in  which  it  occurs.  Another  way, 
is  to  sketch  out  on  cross-section  paper  a  similar  design  of  appar- 
ently the  same  width  and  height.  The  third,  and  probably 
most  used  method,  is  a  combination  of  the  two  just  mentioned, 
consisting  of  some  raveling  and  counting  assisted  by  judicious 
estimating. 

The  advantages  of  the  third  method  are  that  it  saves  time, 
saves  fabric  —  since  frequently  only  a  small  piece  is  available, 
and  often  the  preservation  of  that  is  desirable  — •  and  further- 
more, it  saves  eye  strain,  since  a  stitch-by-stitch  analysis  is  try- 
ing, especially  if  the  fabric  is  fine. 

So  this  method  will  be  used  for  illustration.  At  first  it  is 
desirable  to  disburden  the  mind  of  thought  of  the  direction  of 
motion,  the  number  of  feeds,  and  everything  but  the  determin- 
ation of  the  dimensions  of  the  design.  The  other  details  will 
introduce  themselves  in  time  for  their  consideration. 

Recalling  that  most  designs  are  made  by  arranging  the  pattern 
or  the  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  so  that  the  ends  of 
the  pattern  lap  one  division  over  or  under,  which  makes  the 
divisions  read  vertically  in  the  same  order  in  which  they  read 
horizontally  in  the  pattern,  we  may  assume  that  this  design  was 
made  in  that  way.  Then  the  boundary  of  the  design  will  be 
four  sided.    The  first  step  is  to  determine  its  width  and  height. 

Determining  the  Width  of  the  Design.  —  Consider  the  width 
first.  It  is  evident  that  one  vertical  stripe  is  the  duplicate  of 
the  others.  Therefore,  the  width  equals  the  number  of  wales 
from  a  point  in  one  stripe  to  the  corresponding  point  in  the  next 
stripe.  The  surest  way  to  obtain  this  width  is  to  ravel  the 
rough  top  edge  of  the  fabric  —  the  bottom  will  not  ravel  — 
until  it  is  sufficiently  smooth  and  clear  of  lint  to  ravel  freely  all 
the  way  across.  During  this  raveling  it  will  be  found  that  a 
plain  feed  followed  a  tuck  feed  in  regular  succession,  conse- 
quently, the  number  of  feeds  must  be  even,  that  is  2,  4,  6,  8 
etc.  This  information  is  needed  for  future  reference.  When 
the  edge  ravels  freely,  one  course  should  be  raveled  slowly 
enough  to  count  the  wales  from,  say,  the  right  side  of  one  stripe 
to  the  right  side  of  the  next  one.  Provision  should  be  made 
to  guard  against  counting  too  far,  since  the  tendency  is  to 
count  from  one  tuck  to  the  duplicate  tuck  inclusive,  whereas  if 
counting  is  started  with  one  tuck  it  should  extend  to  the  dupli- 
cate tuck  but  should  not  include  it. 


234 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Marking  the  Limiting  Stitches.  —  ^^'hen  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish the  beginning  and  the  ending  of  the  count,  the  wales 
may  be  selected  before  the  counting  is  begun,  and  marked  down 
their  centers  with  a  pen.  Indeed,  one  of  the  fundamental 
qualifications  for  design  analysis  is  efficiency.  It  is  not  un- 
usual to  see  a  sample  of  fabric  raveled  nearly  away  before  the 
observer  has  learned  anything  definite  about  it.  In  order  to 
avoid  such  mistakes,  it  is  advisable  to  form  the  habit  of  making 
every  move  show  for  something.  Starting  and  stopping  places 
may  be  marked  with  a  little  ink  in  the  loop  of  the  selected 
stitches;  or  a  pin  may  be  put  through  each  selected  loop,  and 
then  the  counting  may  be  done  between  the  pins  on  the  sides 
where  the  heads  are  not,  since  the  heads  prevent  counting  close 
to  the  shank  of  the  pin.  During  the  raveling  to  ascertain  the 
arrangement  of  the  tucks,  a  starting  wale  should  be  selected, 
and  marked  with  ink,  and  then  the  tucks  should  be  recorded  on 
cross-section  paper  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur.  An  at- 
tempt to  remember  the  tuck  arrangement  is  almost  sure  to  re- 
sult in  confusion  unless  the  observer  is  quite  familiar  with  the 
work. 

The  width  of  the  sample  in  question  is  found,  by  counting,  to 
be  30  wales. 

Determining  the  Height  of  the  Design.  — The  height  of  the 
design  is  the  number  of  courses  from  any  point  in  a  square  to 
the  corresponding  point  in  the  next  square  above  or  below. 
The  starting  and  stopping  points  are  sometimes  not  readily  de- 
termined, since  counting  in  the  figured  portion  is  confusing. 
To  overcome  this  difficulty,  it  is  sometimes  permissible  to  cut 
from  one  side  of  the  pattern  a  narrow  strip  of  fabric,  say  five  or 
six  wales  in  width.  Ravel  this  from  a  selected  point  in  one 
square  to  the  corresponding  point  in  the  next  square  below, 
counting  the  threads  as  they  are  raveled  and  keeping  them  to- 
gether for  checking  the  count  after  the  raveling  is  finished. 

The  height  of  this  design  is  found  to  be  24  courses.  If  the 
count  had  come  out  an  odd  number,  it  would  obviously  have 
been  wTong,  since  it  is  known  that  an  even  number  of  feeds  was 
used. 

Two  limitations  of  the  number  of  feeds  are  now  known, 
namely,  that  the  number  is  even  and  that  the  number  must 
divide  evenly  into  24,  since  each  feed  must  make  its  impression 
in  the  design  as  many  times  as  there  are  divisions  in  the  pattern. 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels  23^5 


From  this  it  is  easy  to  make  a  table  of  the  possible  combinations 
of  numbers  of  feeds  and  divisions  of  pattern,  since  the  only- 
fabric  conditions  are  that  the  number  of  feeds  be  even  and  that 
the  product  of  feeds  and  fabric  divisions  in  the  pattern  be  equal 
,  to2 

Table 


Feeds 

Divisions 

Courses  in  design 

2         X  12 
4X6 
6X4 
8X3 
12         X  2 
24         X  1 

24 

This  table  gives  all  the  possible  combinations  of  feeds,  from 
which  selection  may  be  made  according  to  convenience  and  to 
the  facilities  available,  since  any  of  these  combinations  will 
make  the  design.  In  other  words,  a  design  may  generally  be 
duplicated  without  duplication  of  the 
particular  equipment  with  which  it 
was  produced.  But  it  is  frequently 
desirable  to  know  how  many  feeds 
were  actually  used  to  produce  the 
design  in  question.  This  is  learned 
for  one  division  lap  by  counting  the 
difference  in  elevation  in  courses  of 
two  adjoining  designs,  as  is  seen  by 
reference  to  Illustrations  36  and  39. 
Raveling  from  the  top  of  one  square  to  the  top  of  the  corre- 
sponding one  in  the  next  design  shows  a  difference  of  4  courses, 
consequently,  four  feeds  were  used  to  make  the  sample  in  ques- 
tion. Of  course,  if  the  pattern  lap  is  more  than  one  section, 
then  the  difference  in  the  height  of  two  adjoining  designs  would 
be  a  multiple  of  the  number  of  feeds  as  in  Illustrations  37  and 
38,  but  that  case  is  not  the  usual  one  so  it  is  not  considered 
here. 

The  Structure  and  Dimensions  of  the  Figures.  —  The  next 
step  is  the  determination  of  the  dimensions  and  structure  of  the 
figures.  The  raveling  so  far  has  shown  that  only  single  tucks 
are  used,  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  and  that  these  are 


Illustration  42. 
Diagram  of  the  design 
shown  in  Illustration  41. 


236 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


arranged  diagonally  with  respect  to  each  other.  Moreover, 
close  inspection,  taken  in  consideration  with  the  symmetrical 
arrangement  of  the  figures  and  some  stitch  coimting,  shows  the 
design  to  be  as  in  Illustration  42. 

Knitting  Motion.  —  Since  the  du'ection  of  motion  is  not  in- 
dicated by  the  sample,  this  also  may  be  a  matter  of  choice  just 
as  the  number  of  feeds,  if  the  inversion  of  the  figure  as  in  Illus- 
tration 26  compared  with  24  is  not  objectionable.  Table  1, 
on  page  204,  classifying  machines  by  fabric  motion  facilitates 
adapting  the  motion  to  any  particular  type  of  machine.  Sup- 
pose that  the  third  type  from  the  top  of  the  table  is  selected, 
since  this  is  a  representative  American  type.  Then,  as  the 
table  shows,  the  fabric  motion  is  right-hand.  Consequently,  the 
design  illustrated  in  the  sketch  is  to  be  produced  in  the  fabric 
by  motion  toward  the  right. 

Table  2,  on  page  235,  of  feeds  and  corresponding  pattern  sec- 
tions shows  a  practical  range  of  4,  6  or  8  feeds,  but  inasmuch  iis 
the  sample  was  apparently  made  with  4  feeds,  the  discussion  may 
well  be  carried  out  with  that  number.  Then  according  to  the 
table,  the  number  of  divisions  in  the  pattern  must  be  six,  which 
is  also  the  number  of  divisions  in  the  diagram. 

Direction  of  Lap.  —  The  next  consideration  is  whether  the 
lap  is  to  be  over  or  under.  Evidently,  if  the  pattern  overlaps, 
the  number  of  cylinder  needles  is  one  division  less  than  a  whole 
number  of  patterns,  and  if  the  pattern  underlaps,  the  number 
of  cylinder  needles  is  one  division  over  a  whole  number  of  pat- 
terns. That  is,  if  the  lap  is  under,  the  remainder  is  over,  and 
vice  versa.  If  this  is  not  perfectly  clear,  one  can  make  it  so  by 
forming  a  closed  circle  of  a  paper  pattern  with  end  margins, 
and  then  underlapping  or  overlapping  the  ends  of  the  pattern. 
The  sample  was  evidently  made  with  underlap,  so  the  needle 
remainder  was  one  division  over  an  integral  number  of 
patterns. 

The  following  table  gives  the  numbers  of  cylinder  needles 
for  producing  this  design  with  either  overlap  or  underlap.  The 
second  number  of  the  bracketed  pair  is  for  underlap  and  should 
be  used  for  strict  duplication  of  the  design. 

Referring  to  the  diagram  of  the  design,  Illustration  42,  and 
remembering  that  the  motion  of  knitting  is  right-hand,  the 
observer  sees  that  the  lower  right  corner  of  the  design  will  be 
knit  first.    The  rule  is:  The  divisions  of  the  pattern  arrange 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


237 


Table  3 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

Number  of 

patterns 

Number  of  pat- 
terns  multiplied  by 
the  number  of 
divisions  in  one 
pattern 
(1)  X  6 

Number  of 
divisions  in 

cylinder, 

(2)  ±  1 

Number  of 
needles  in 
cylinder, 
(3)  X  30 

0 

0 

1 

30 

1 

«  1 

5 
7 

150 
210 

2 

«  1 

11 

13 

330 
390 

3 

>s  j 

17 
19 

510 
570 

4 

24  { 

23 
25- 

690 
750 

5 

30  { 

29 
31 

870 
930 

6 

36  { 

35 
37 

1050 
1110 

themselves  vertically  with  the  front  f  ^P^^^^  \  when  the 

\  downward  / 

needles  in  the  cylinder  are  one  division  f  '^^^^^^^  j  ^  whole  number 

\  over  / 

of  patterns.  In  order  to  avoid  confusion  this  rule  may  be  stated 
in  terms  of  the  lap  for  this  case  as  follows:   The  divisions  of  the 


pattern  arrange  themselves  vertically  with  the  front  (  /^P^^^^  \ 

\  downward/ 

when  the  lap  is  one  division  ( 


Therefore,  for  underlap 


over  \ 
under  / 

the  divisions  of  the  pattern  will  repeat  themselves  vertically  with 
the  first  one  at  the  bottom.  Consequently  the  design  may  be 
numbered  upward  on  the  right  side,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  as  it  is 
shown,  according  to  the  six  equal  divisions  of  four  feeds  each,  ar- 
ranged in  pairs  with  one  tuck  presser  followed  by  a  plain  presser. 

Inversion  of  Figures.  —  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  con- 
nection that  when  the  figures  are  symmetrical  with  respect  to  a 
horizontal  axis,  it  generally  matters  little  whether  the  lap  is 
over  or  under.    This  design  has  figures  which  are  symmetrical 


238 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


with  respect  to  a  horizontal  axis,  that  is,  those  figures  may  be 
turned  upside  down  without  changing  their  appearance.  Change 
in  the  direction  of  the  lap  inverts  the  design  and  changes  the 
arrangement  of  the  duplicate  designs  with  respect  to  each  other, 
as  a  comparison  of  Illustrations  36  and  39  shows;  but  this 
change  in  relation  of  the  designs  is  much  less  noticeable  than 

I  6  I  5  i  4  ;  3  ,  2  i  I  ~1 
 6  


i 

Eh 

X  Xi  X 
X  X 

X  X 

1 

1 

X  X 

1 

'  ! 

5 


1 

X 

X 

X 

1 

X 

' — 

X 

1  1  1 

X 

X 

X 

1 

1 

1  1 

1 

1 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

j4 


X 

1 

'  i  1 

i  1 

X 

X 

X  X 

X 

X 

XXX 

X 

X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  U  i 

3 


1  1 

X| 

X 

X 

X 

X 

i 

X 

i\ 

H 

X 

X  X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

X  X 

I 


i 

X]  |X 

1 

1  ' 

1  '  1 

1 

1 

1 

1  1 

1  • 

1 

1 

X 

X 

Illustration  43. 
Strip  pattern  copied  from  Illustration  42. 

the  inversion  of  an  unsymmetrical  design,  such  as  Illustration 
24.  Consequently,  many  designers  use  figures  which  may  be 
inverted  and  pay  no  attention  to  the  direction  of  the  lap,  since 
by  neglecting  it  they  double  the  available  numbers  of  cylinder 
needles. 

These  divisions  may  be  copied  from  Illustration  42  from  left 
to  right  in  the  reverse  of  their  numerical  order  on  a  strip  of 
paper  as  sho^-n  in  Illustration  43. 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


239 


Proving  the  Pattern.  —  It  is  advisable  to  leave  a  margin  at 
the  top  of  the  strip  pattern,  for  this  not  only  allows  the  num- 
bering of  the  divisions  without  confusion  of  the  numbers  with 
the  tuck  crosses,  but  it  provides  a  margin  for  coiling  the  strip  in 
order  to  prove  the  accuracy  of  the  design  and  its  transference 
to  the  strip.  Table  3,  page  237,  shows  that  the  design  is  obtain- 
able with  30  needles,  so  if  this  strip  is  coiled  in  a  helix,  so  that 
the  first  needle  of  the  pattern  comes  under  the  31st  needle,  and 
so  on  to  the  end,  the  resulting  tube  will  show  the  design  just  as 
it  is  in  the  diagram,  provided  the  work  has  been  properly  done. 
It  should  be  noted  that  this  amounts  to  bringing  division  2  over 
division  1,  and  that  it  is  for  underlap,  which  results  from  a 
number  of  needles  one  division  more  than  an  integral  number  of 
patterns.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  design  needs  overlap,  which 
results  from  a  number  of  needles  one  division  less  than  an  integral 
number  of  patterns,  then  division  6  must  be  brought  over  division 
1  in  order  to  prove  the  pattern  by  coiling  it.  This  necessitates 
a  much  longer  strip  in  order  to  show  the  whole  design  in  the  re- 
sulting tube. 

After  the  strip  pattern  is  proved,  the  next  question  is  how  to 
transfer  it  to  the  pressor  so  that  the  design  will  not  be  reversed 
or  inverted. 

Forming  the  Pressor  from  the  Pattern.  —  Bring  the  ends  of 
the  strip  together  as  in  Illustration  44.  This  represents  the  edge 
of  a  printing  wheel  which  will  make  the  required  design,  for  it  is 
the  right  length,  180  needles,  and  it  contains  all  of  the  required 
impressions  in  their  proper  order.  But  this  wheel  would  have  to 
run  on  the  back  of  the  fabric  and  print  through  to  the  face  in 
order  to  make  the  design  just  as  the  sketch  shows  it.  Some 
types  of  machine  have  the  pressers  placed  so  that  this  analogy 
holds.  In  this  type  the  fabric  runs  downward,  faces  outward, 
revolves  anti-clockwise  and  has  the  presser  inside  of  the  needle 
hne.  Consequently,  for  this  type  of  machine  Illustration  44 
shows  just  how  the  pattern  is  to  be  put  on  the  pressers,  of  v/hich 
there  are  two,  the  first  for  the  lower  line  of  tucks  and  the 
second  for  the  upper  line  of  tucks.  The  first  is  to  make  the 
lowest  course  in  the  design;  moreover  the  relative  position  of 
the  pressers  with  respect  to  the  needles  which  they  press  is  to  be 
just  as  it  is  shown  in  the  strip  pattern. 

However,  the  most  used  types  of  machine  are  not  like  the 
type  just  described,  for  not  the  front  but  the  back  of  the  presser 


240 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Illustration  44. 


Model  presser  formed  from  the  pattern  in  Illustration  43  for  duplication  of 
the  design  in  Illustration  41  for  right-hand  motion  of  fabric 
and  front  side  of  presser  acting. 


Illustration  45. 

The  same  pattern  as  that  in  Illustration  44,  but  adapted  by  reversal 
to  type  7  machine,  Table  1,  page  205. 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


241 


operates  to  make  the  design.  How  can  the  pattern  be  adapted 
to  them  without  the  mistake  of  turning  it  end  for  end,  or  up- 
side down? 

Adapting  the  Pattern  to  Different  Presser  Positions.  —  Illus- 
tration 45  shows  the  strip  pattern  with  its  ends  joined  to  form  a 
circle,  except  that  this  time  the  strip  is  inside  out.  It  is  still 
right  side  up  as  it  was  at  first.  The  pattern  has  been  traced 
through  on  the  back  with  the  strip  held  against  a  window  pane 
and  the  tuck  crosses  duphcated  with  a  pencil  on  the  back.  The 
observer  sees  now  by  regarding  the  inside  of  the  strip,  that 
if  this  presser  operates  with  the  back  side  moving  toward  the 
right,  the  effect  in  the  fabric  will  be  just  the  same  as  before 
when  the  strip  was  right  side  out  and  the  front  side  acted  toward 
the  right.  Consequently,  the  pencil  markings  on  the  outside  of 
the  circular  strip  show  how  the  pattern  should  be  put  on  the 
presser  when  the  back  side  operates  on  the  needles. 

As  it  was  explained,  there  are  two  pressers,  the  pattern  for 
each  is  on  its  respective  tuck  line,  and  the  lower  one  knits  first. 

The  circumference  called  for  by  the  paper  strip  is  180  needles, 
but  it  may  be  360,  or  any  other  multiple  of  180,  provided  the 
pattern  is  duplicated  all  around  the  edge  of  the  presser. 

Suppose  that  the  number  of  needles  in  the  available  cylinder 
is  957.  This  number  is  not  suitable  for  a  design  30  needles  in 
width,  since  it  is  not  in  Table  3,  page  237.  Consequently,  it  is 
necessary  to  find  what  widths  are  possible  with  this  number  of 
cylinder  needles,  in  order  to  modify  the  design  to  correspond  to 
957  needles  and  still  to  use  four  feeds. 

To  begin  with,  the  width  of  the  design  must  divide  into  the 
cylinder  needles,  so  it  is  necessary  to  find  what  numbers  will 
divide  957.  This  is  simply  factoring,  which  may  be  set  down 
as  follows: 

3g57 
111319 
29 

Evidently,  3,  11,  29,  33  (3  X  U)  and  87  (3  X  29)  are  the  low 
numbers  which  will  divide  957,  and  the  two  numbers  nearest 
to  30,  the  width  of  the  sample,  are  29  and  33. 

Try  29,  since  it  is  the  nearer  to  30  —  so  near  that  if  it  is  usable, 
the  design  may  be  adapted  to  it  by  the  omission  of  one  wale 
from  the  field  between  the  two  squares. 

The  way  to  try  the  number  is  to  see  if  its  pattern  divisions  are 


242 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


suitable.  Six  would  be  preferable,  since  the  height  of  the  design 
should  be  left  as  it  is,  if  the  width  is  not  to  be  changed  more  than 
one  needle,  which  is  practically  no  change  so  far  as  appearance 
is  concerned. 

The  width  29  is  contained  in  957  thirty-three  times;  that  is, 
the  number  of  cylinder  divisions  is  33.  But  the  pattern  itself 
must  divide  into  the  needles  with  a  remainder  of  one  division 
over  or  imder,  so  to  find  the  possible  pattern  lengths,  factor 
32  and  34  =  (33  ±  1). 


Evidently,  2,  4,  8,  16,  17  are  available  factors,  and  the  nearest 
number  of  divisions  for  the  pattern  is  8,  which  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  feeds,  4,  equals  32  instead  of  the  24  courses 
desired.  The  field  could  be  made  higher  by  eight  courses,  but 
the  squares  could  not  be  enlarged  proportionately,  since  the 
design  has  been  narrowed  by  one  needle.  Consequently,  this 
solution  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  it  should  be. 

Generally  Advisable  to  Reduce  the  Extent  of  the  Design.  — 
However,  the  33-needle  design  width  is  still  available  for  in- 
vestigation, since  the  sample  design  might  be  widened  so  much 
without  objection.  This  wddth  divides  into  957  twenty-nine 
times,  so  29  is  the  number  of  cylinder  divisions.  The  pattern 
must  divide  into  one  more  or  one  less  divisions,  so  factor  28  and 
30  equal  to  (29  =t  1)  to  find  the  possible  pattern  divisions 


Evidently,  the  number  of  pattern  divisions  may  be  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
7.  This  is  a  happy  solution,  for  the  height  of  the  design  may  be 
left  as  it  is  by  the  use  of  6  divisions  in  the  pattern,  or  may  be 
increased  by  four  courses  to  correspond  roughly  to  the  increase 
in  width  diie  to  the  use  of  33  needles  instead  of  30.  As  far  as  the 
appearance  of  the  design  is  concerned  it  will  probably  be  satis- 
factory to  use  the  original  number  of  divisions  in  the  pattern, 
namely,  6.    However,  there  are  practical  considerations  which 


2 
2 
2 
2 


32 
16 

_8 

2 


2|4 
17 


2128 
7 


2130 
3[l5 

5 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


243 


sometimes  make  it  advisable  to  reduce  the  design  whenever 
modification  is  necessary.  One  consideration  is  that  it  is  fre- 
quently desirable  to  recut  the  original  pressers,  which  may  be 
done  if  the  length  of  the  pattern  is  reduced,  for  the  old  cuts  may 
be  turned  off  and  the  new  ones  may  then  be  made  on  the  same 
pressers.  This  is  especially  desirable  where  the  mill  is  isolated 
from  the  knitting  machine  shop,  or  when  it  is  inconvenient  to 
wait  to  get  the  pressers  recut  to  order. 

Adapting  a  Design  to  a  Range  of  Cylinder  Sizes.  —  So  far  the 
discussion  has  been  carried  on  principally  with  one  machine  in 
view.  But  designs  for  underwear  should  be  adaptable  to  the 
range  of  sizes  used  in  underwear  manufacture,  including  the 
sizes  from  which  sleeves  and  drawers  are  cut,  since  all  parts  of 
the  suit  should  match.  This  involves  making  one  design  adapt- 
able to  different  numbers  of  feeds  as  well  as  to  different  numbers 
of  needles,  since  the  numbers  of  feeds  decrease,  as  well  as  the 
numbers  of  needles,  with  decrease  in  the  diameter  of  the  machine. 
However,  the  feeds  do  not  change  by  rule,  whereas  the  needles 
do.  Knowledge  of  the  particular  machine  in  question  is  gen- 
erally required  in  order  to  plan  for  the  numbers  of  feeds.  But 
evidently  the  numbers  of  needles  should  change  according  to 
the  difference  in  the  diameters  of  the  machines. 

Difference  in  Standards.  —  An  inch  difference  in  diameter 
corresponds  to  3.14  inches  difference  in  circumference.  Ac- 
cordingly, if  the  machines  are  10  cut,  the  difference  between 
sizes  is  31  or  32  needles.  Moreover,  since  the  diameters  are 
generally  even  inches,  the  numbers  of  needles  in  the  cylinders 
should  be  multiples  of  31.4;  that  is,  a  one-inch  cylinder  should 
have  31  or  32  needles;  a  two-inch  machine  should  have  62,  63 
or  64  needles,  etc.  Consequently,  for  10  cut,  as  a  general  rule, 
31  or  32  might  be  adopted  as  a  convenient  design  width.  There 
are  local  qualifications  to  be  looked  for,  such  as  difference  be- 
tween the  nominal  diameter  and  the  actual  diameter.  For  in- 
stance, in  America  two  types  of  spring-needle  loop- wheel  machines 
are  made  with  the  nominal  diameter  of  the  machine  the  same  as 
the  actual  diameter  of  the  needle  line,  whereas  another  type  has 
the  needle  line  diameter  approximately  half  an  inch  greater. 
Furthermore,  one  of  the  types  in  which  the  nominal  and  actual 
diameter  agree  has  about  one  and  one-half  per  cent  less  needles 
per  inch  than  the  nominal  gauge.  While  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  the  knitter  should  learn  all  these  differences,  and  much 


244 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


! 

I 


less  to  be  expected  that  he  should  remember  them,  still  it  is" 
highly  important  to  remember  that  such  differences  do  exist,; 
in  order  to  learn  the  particular  ones  involved  and  to  allow  fon 
them  in  a  design  for  a  range  of  sizes. 

Cutting  Cylinders  in  View  of  Pattern  Work.  —  Manufacturers 
who  have  made  pattern  work  in  the  past  and  contemplate  mak- 
ing it  in  the  future  generally  ascertain  from  the  knitting  machine 
maker  what  the  difference  is  in  needles  between  the  cyUnder 
sizes,  and  then  have  this  difference  or  an  average  of  it  adopted 
as  a  divisor  of  all  the  cylinders.  In  order  to  do  this,  the  cylinder 
diameters  may  have  to  be  changed  slightly  so  as  to  keep  the  cut 
standard. 

So  far,  the  discussion  has  involved  comparatively  long  pat- 
terns and  the  use  of  plain  pressers  to  clear  the  tucks,  since  the 
principles  of  designing  are  more  readily  explained  under  those 
conditions. 

But  much  pattern  work  is  done  with  short  patterns  and  all 
tuck  pressers.  These  conditions  do  not  change  the  principles, 
but  they  require  some  attention  which  is  not  required  with 
plain  pressers. 

Self-clearing  Pressers.  —  Consider  a  knitting  machine  which 
has  100  needles  and  1  feed  with  a  plain  presser  just  the  diam- 
eter of  the  machine.  This  machine  will  make  plain  fabric.  Put 
100  sUght  notches  —  prints,  they  are  called  —  equally  spaced 
around  the  presser.  Then  the  machine  will  still  make  plain 
fabric,  but  the  presser  will  make  one  complete  revolution  every 
time  the  cylinder  does.  If  it  did  not  contain  the  prints  it 
would  slip  back  like  a  belt  on  a  driving  pulley.  Now  cut  every 
second  print  deeper,  so  that  it  will  not  touch  its  corresponding 
needle.  The  machine  will  begin  to  make  one-and-one  tuck,  or 
properly,  tuck-one-knit-one  fabric.  But  the  tuck  loops  will  con- 
tinue to  accumulate  on  every  other  needle,  for  they  cannot 
be  cleared,  since  the  same  deep  cut  comes  opposite  the  same 
needle  every  time.  However,  if  it  could  be  arranged  so  that  the 
loop  on  any  needle  would  be  tucked  in  one  course  and  cleared 
in  the  next  course,  then  the  machine  would  work  satisfactorily. 
Evidently,  this  would  be  accomplished  if  the  needle  which  is 
visited  by  a  cut  in  one  course  be  visited  by  a  print  in  the  next 
course;  and  the  way  to  accomplish  this  is  to  arrange  that  the 
presser  will  gain  or  lose  one  needle  in  each  revolution  of  the 
cylinder,  which  might  be  done  in  two  ways,  either  by  changing 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels 


245 


the  number  of  cyUnder  needles  by  one,  or  by  changing  the  num- 
ber of  presser  prints  by  one. 

Consider  changing  the  number  of  cylinder  needles  by  adding 
one.  Then  the  presser  will  fall  back  by  one  needle  at  each 
revolution,  so  at  each  succeeding  course  the  needles  which  were 
tucked  will  be  pressed,  which  was  the  condition  required  for 
successful  operation  of  the  machine.  Evidently,  the  tucks  will 
fall  in  diagonal  lines,  the  lower  ends  of  which  will  point  back 
from  the  direction  of  knitting  motion,  as  already  explained.  If 
a  needle  had  been  taken  out,  the  lower  end  of  the  diagonal 
would  point  in  the  direction  of  knitting  motion. 

Improper  Pressers.  —  Now,  consider  leaving  100  needles  in 
the  cylinder  as  at  first  and  changing  the  number  of  needles  in 
the  presser  by  taking  out  one.  This  will  leave  99  needles  in  the 
presser,  which  is  an  odd  number,  but  the  length  of  the  pattern 
is  two  needles  which  is  an  even  number,  and  since  the  presser 
must  contain  a  whole  number  of  patterns,  the  change  cannot 
be  made  without  violation  of  both  the  rule  and  the  pattern. 
But  suppose  they  are  violated.  What  will  happen?  As  to  the 
presser,  either  one  cut  or  one  print  has  been  omitted.  If  a  cut 
has  been  omitted,  two  prints  come  alongside;  and  if  a  print  has 
been  omitted,  two  cuts  come  alongside.  This  causes  somewhere 
among  the  single-tuck  diagonals  a  stripe  two  plain  stitches  in 
width,  or  a  stripe  two  tucks  in  width  according  to  whether  two 
prints  come  together  or  two  cuts.  One  such  diagonal  in  the 
whole  circumference  of  the  presser  might  not  be  objectionable, 
so  this  trick  is  frequently  useful.  It  is  not  restricted  to  one- 
and-one  work,  but  may  be  used  with  more  extensive  patterns. 
However,  it  is  sometimes  deceptive  unless  carefully  used.  This 
may  be  illustrated  as  follows. 

Clearing  by  Changing  the  Needles.  —  Start  with  the  original 
tuck  arrangement,  namely,  a  one-feed  100-needle  machine  with 
a  one-and-one  tuck  presser  100  needles  around.  This  is  inoper- 
ative because  it  will  not  clear  the  tucks.  Make  the  needles  in 
the  cylinder  odd,  say  99  or  101.  Then  the  tucks  will  be  cleared, 
and  the  machine  will  operate.  Now,  make  the  number  of  needles 
in  the  cylinder  any  other  odd  number,  201  or  355  or  931.  The 
machine  will  still  operate.  Of  course,  any  even  number  of  needles 
would  make  the  machine  inoperative  as  with  the  original  100. 

Clearing  by  Changing  the  Presser.  —  On  the  other  hand, 
start  with  the  100-needle  one-feed  machine  with  a  one-and-one 


246 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


tuck  presser  100  needles  in  circumference,  and  consider  changing 
the  size  of  the  presser  as  it  has  been  explained,  and  using  larger 
cylinders  also.  It  was  seen  that  the  presser  might  be  reduced 
by  a  print  or  a  cut  and  that  the  machine  would  be  operative, 
with  a  slight  defect  in  the  design.  Now,  suppose  that  the  num- 
ber of  cylinder  needles  is  increased  to,  say,  200.  The  number  of 
needles  in  the  presser  divides  into  200  with  a  remainder  of  2, 
consequently,  the  tuck  stitches  would  not  be  cleared,  and  the 
machine  would  load  up.  A  moment's  reflection  will  show  the 
limitations  of  this  method  of  using  an  odd  number  of  cuts  in  a 
presser  with  an  even  pattern.  The  object  of  the  method  is  to 
get  a  lap  of  one  needle  when  the  number  of  needles  is  even.  But 
if  the  presser  laps  an  even  number  of  needles  for  one  cylinder 
revolution,  then  it  acts  just  like  a  single  presser  so  many  times 
bigger  with  an  even  number  of  cuts,  consequently,  the  needles 
will  load  up,  since  the  same  needles  will  be  pressed  all  the  time. 

Several  Self-clearing  Pressors.  —  It  has  just  been  shown  that 
with  a  single  feed  and  a  tuck  presser,  the  latter  must  clear  its 
own  tucks  by  pressing  the  needles  which  were  skipped  in  the  pre- 
ceding course.    But  in  a  two-feed  machine  with  two  tuck  pressers, 

evidently,  one  presser  may  clear 
the  single  tucks  of  the  other, 
or  each  may  clear  its  own  loop, 
held  over  two  courses.  The  fol- 
lowing will  make  this  clear. 
Since  there  are  two  feeds,  the 
opportunity  to  lap  comes  only 
at  every  second  course,  as  it  is 
shown  by  the  analogy  of  the 
printing  wheel,  in  which  all  the 
pressers  act  as  one  single  wheel. 
Now,  entirely  regardless  of 
the  lap  these  two  pressers  may 
be  arranged  in  two  ways  with 
respect  to  each  other;  so  that 
one  clears  the  tucks  of  the  other; 
or  so  that  both  tuck  on  the  same  needles.  If  one  clears  the  tucks 
of  the  other,  then  the  machine  will  operate  regardless  of  the 
number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder,  because  one  presser  takes 
care  of  the  other;  but  if  the  second  presser  adds  tucks  where 
the  first  made  them,  then  the  clearing  of  these  tucks  must  be 


Illustration  46. 

Diagram  of  one-and-one  double  tuck 
diagonals  made  with  two  tuck 
pressers  which  clear  their  tucks  by 
lap  instead  of  clearing  them  by  a 
plain  presser. 


Figure  Designing  with  Pattern  Wheels  247 


done  with  lap,  which  will  make  both  pressers  step  ahead  or 
back  by  an  equal  amount.  It  is  advisable  to  get  this  principle 
firmly  fixed,  because  it  is  applicable  for  as  many  feeds  as  the 
number  of  tucks  allowable  on  one  needle,  say  6.  Illustration 
46  shows  a  diagram  for  a  machine  having  two  feeds,  each  with 
a  one-and-one  tuck  presser,  and  arranged  to  tuck  the  same 
needles  and  then  lap  one  needle  at  the  second  course  in  order  to 
clear  the  double  tucks. 


fl-^'— r-l — "-^^    I  "  ".^1  ■»  p5  |.i6  1 1  i  1 1  1 1 A  70  needles 


60  needles 


Illustrations  47,  48,  49,  and  50. 
Exception  to  the  general  rule  for  patterns.    Pattern  A  calls  for  a  70-needle 
presser  according  to  the  rule,  but  the  design  may  also  be  made  with  B, 
which  is  a  35-needIe  presser. 

Another  arrangement  which  is  frequently  used  is  a  modi- 
fication of  the  one  in  which  every  second  feed  is  plain,  but  in- 
stead of  making  every  second  feed  plain,  every  third  feed;  say, 
is  made  plain,  or  possibly  one  feed  of  the  whole  lot.  This  feed 
clears  all  tucks  which  are  not  cleared  ahead  of  it. 

An  Exception  to  the  Rule  for  Pattern  Lap.  — •  After  learning  a 
rule  one  of  the  next  important  things  to  learn  is  the  exceptions 
to  it,  since  rarely  is  a  rule  so  complete  as  to  cover  every  case  to 
which  it  is  supposed  to  apply. 


248 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


The  rule  that  the  number  of  needles  in  the  cylinder  must  be  a 
multiple  of  the  number  of  needles  in  the  pattern  plus  or  minus 
one  division  of  the  pattern  has  exceptions  which  are  Ukely  to  be 
puzzling  when  encountered  unexpectedly,  as  the  following  case 
shows. 

Illustration  47  is  a  design  in  which  the  inverted  triangles  are 
10  needles  apart,  and  which  is  apparently  made  with  pattern 
divisions  of  10  needles  each.  This  design  does  not  lend  itself  to 
analysis  by  the  quadrangular  method.  If  the  sample  is  suffi- 
ciently wide  to  include  70  needles  the  pattern  may  be  copied  from 
the  courses  and  will  be  found  like  that  at  A  in  Illustration  47. 
This  pattern  is  suggestive  of  something  exceptional  to  the  rule, 


b 

5 

1  « 

•  6 

• 

i 

• 

•  t 

1 

i 

9 

1 

•  i 

4 

4 

; 

• 

m  m  m 

4 

• 

i 

1 

1 

• 

1 

• 

4 

• 

1 

W  i 

i 

• 

• 

S 

o 

• 

1 

4 

• 

1 1 1 

i 

i 

4 

ib 

• 

• 

• 

4 

•  4 

1 

1 

i 

• 

•  •  * 

1 

1 

m 

• 

1 

•  • 

4 

4 

■  9  < 

t 

• 

•  «  • 

1.. 

1 

51_ 
Illustration. 


Disposition  of  the  elements  of  the  70-needle  strip  pattern  A  (above  Illustra- 
tion 47)  when  used  with  a  60-needle  cylinder.  The  35-needIe  strip  pattern  B 
(above  Illustration  50)  would  make  sections  1,  2,  and  3,  after  which  it  would 
repeat  them. 

since  it  fills  the  condition  for  two  patterns,  namely  repetition  of 
the  same  characteristics;  also  the  tucks  are  arranged  in  two 
groups  of  1,  2,  3  each  and  the  separation  in  the  groups  is 
10  needles  whereas  between  the  groups  it  is  15  needles.  To  sum 
up,  although  the  design  seems  to  call  for  a  shorter  pattern  than 
that  shown,  namely  70  needles,  still  there  is  no  way  to  use  a 
shorter  pattern  and  to  comply  with  the  rule  that  the  lap  of  the 
pattern  shall  be  one  pattern  division,  namely  10  needles. 

In  fact  the  rule  applies  because  the  design  may  be  reproduced 
with  pattern  A  on  a  cylinder  with  80  needles,  as  shown  in  Illus- 
tration 47,  or  with  60  needles,  as  shovm  in  Illustration  49,  in 
which  case,  however,  the  triangle  is  no  longer  inverted,  which 
is  to  be  expected,  for  it  was  shown  that  reversal  of  the  direction 
of  lap  inverts  the  figure  about  a  horizontal  axis  in  its  plane. 
However,  conformity  to  the  rule  is  not  proof  that  a  shorter  pat- 
tern is  not  usable. 


Economics  of  Knitting 


249 


In  an  actual  case  like  this  it  was  found  that  a  70-needle  presser 
was  too  large  for  use,  which  indicated  that  a  smaller  presser  had 
been  used  in  making  the  sample.  Accordingly  the  pattern  was 
divided  as  B  shows,  and  was  found  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  design  as  Illustrations  48  and  50  show,  although  pattern  B 
does  not  meet  the  requirements  of  the  rule. 

If  the  six  divisions  of  pattern  A  are  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
and  the  divisions  in  the  design  are  identified  by  these  numbers, 
the  boundary  of  the  design  will  be  found  to  be  a  ten-sided  figure 
as  Illustration  51  shows.  When  "pattern  B  is  used  the  boundary 
is  a  six-sided  figure  containing  the  divisions  1,  2,  3. 

ECONOMICS  OF  KNITTING 

The  highest  economy  consists  in  the  conversion  of  yarn  into 
fabric  at  the  lowest  cost.  Defects  and  waste  must,  of  course, 
be  included  in  the  cost.  Therefore,  the  subject  embraces  the 
factors  which  affect  the  cost  of  knitting. 

A  rough  primary  division  of  these  considerations  may  be 
made  as  follows: 

The  space  (including  power). 

The  machine. 

The  yarn. 

The  operator. 

Space.  —  The  space  cost  can  be  affected  but  little  except  by 
change  in  the  rate  of  production.  If  the  rate  is  doubled  without 
increase  in  the  space,  the  space  cost,  per  pound  of  fabric,  say,  is 
halved.  Extra  power  will  be  required,  but  the  increase  in  space 
cost  due  to  increase  in  power  cost  is  generally  negligible.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  characteristics  of  the  space  have  much  to 
do  with  the  cost  of  knitting,  since  the  efficiency  of  the  machine 
is  largely  dependent  on  the  physical  and  mental  condition  of 
the  operator,  which  in  turn  is  dependent  not  only  on  the  light, 
temperature,  ventilation,  etc.,  of  the  surroundings,  but  on  the 
character  of  the  supervision.  A  hydro-extractor  may  be  placed 
in  a  dismal  corner  since  it  is  safe  even  if  the  operator  has  de- 
fective sight  or  is  sickly  or  is  resentful.  But  a  knitting  machine 
has  so  many  fine  parts  and  adjustments  that  neglect  or  injury, 
whether  caused  by  inability  to  see  clearly  or  by  carelessness  or 
by  enmity,  will  ultimately  ruin  the  machine  and  will  injure  much 
fabric  in  the  meantime. 


250 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Machine.  —  The  machine  considerations  are  of  a  different 
nature  than  the  space  considerations,  except,  of  course,  that  in- 
terest on  the  cost  of  the  machine  is  constant,  so  that  the  ma- 
chine interest  cost  per  pound  of  fabric  is  reduced  bj^  increase  in 
the  production  just  as  the  space  interest  cost  is.  But  increased 
production  generally  involves  increased  wear  and  tear  on  the 
machine,  which  increases  the  cost  for  maintenance,  repair  and 
depreciation,  whereas  space  increase  does  not. 

There  are  three  ways  to  treat  the  machinery. 

1.  To  hold  back  production  to  preserve  the  machinery. 

2.  To  increase  the  profits  by  rapidly  wearing  out  the  machinery. 

3.  To  run  the  machinery  at  the  maximum  earning  capacity 
and  to  put  aside  enough  of  the  earnings  to  replace  the  machinery 
when  it  becomes  inefficient. 

The  first  way  is  the  old  one,  exemplified  by  the  remark  "  This 
machine  has  been  in  constant  use  for  thirty  years  and  is  just  as 
good  as  new." 

The  second  way  is  typical  of  American  knitting  practice.  It 
requires  ultimate  increase  of  capital  for  new  machinery  or  the 
use  of  worn-out  machinery  at  a  loss,  either  of  which  courses 
increases  the  mill's  burden  and  so  leads  to  dissolution. 

The  third  course  is  apparently  the  right  one.  It  enables  the 
mill  to  make  a  good  profit  and  to  keep  its  equipment  modern,  so 
that  it  has  the  advantage  over  new  competition  of  an  estab- 
lished business  and  no  disadvantages;  whereas  under  the  other 
methods,  while  the  old  mill  has  the  advantage  of  estabhshment, 
it  is  handicapped  by  antiquated  machinery  or  by  extra  interest 
charges. 

It  will  be  considered  then  that  the  machine  is  a  means  to  an 
end  and  that  it  should  be  used  up  judiciously,  provided  that  out 
of  its  extra  earnings  enough  is  saved  to  replace  it  with  a  more 
modern  one  and  that  it  is  so  replaced. 

Yarn.  — The  next  consideration  is  the  yarn.  It  may  be  cut 
or  torn,  and  turned  into  waste,  or  it  may  be  knit  with  imperfec- 
tions which  reduce  the  value  of  the  fabric.  This  reduction  in 
value  should  be  charged  to  the  cost  of  manufacture,  just  as 
is  charged  the  shrinkage  in  value  from  yarn  to  waste.  With 
some  knitting  machinery  there  is  a  choice  whether  to  use  thread 
stop  motions,  and  frequently  there  is  a  question  between  re- 
winding and  not.  But  for  most  rib  knitting,  thread  stop  motions 
are  necessary,  and  since  the  pros  and  cons  of  rewinding  are 


Economics  of  Knitting 


251 


quite  well  understood,  it  is  considered  that  stop  motions  are  used 
and  that  the  yarn  is  to  be  knit  as  supplied,  either  on  cones 
or  bobbins  as  the  case  may  be.  Summarized  in  regard  to  the 
yarn  the  main  considerations  are  to  keep  down  the  waste  and 
to  keep  up  the  quality  of  the  fabric. 

Operator.  —  The  operator  is  the  most  important  factor  and 
the  most  difficult  one  to  control.  Not  only  is  his  labor  a  cost 
item,  but  he  influences  almost  every  other  cost,  e.g.,  fixed  cost 
by  affecting  the  rate  of  production,  machinery  cost  by  the  care 
given  the  machine,  and  yarn  cost  both  by  the  attention  to  the 
operation  of  the  machine  and  by  the  result  of  the  adjustment  of 
the  machine.  Of  course,  the  cost  for  operation  is  reduced  by 
increase  in  the  production  per  operator. 

The  question  how  to  get  the  best  results  from  the  operator  is 
too  voluminous  for  extensive  treatment  here,  but  a  few  impor- 
tant considerations  may  be  mentioned.  The  operator  is  better 
led  than  driven.  Preferably,  he  should  be  led  by  inducements 
to  drive  himself.  There  are  three  good  reasons  for  not  driving 
him.  In  the  first  place,  he  is  generally  of  sufficient  intelligence 
to  appreciate  reasonable  treatment;  in  the  second  place,  it  is 
difficult  to  tell  that  he  is  not  doing  his  best,  and  in  the  third 
place,  he  has  so  much  of  his  employer's  property  within  his 
control  that  he  is  much  more  independent  than  help  usually  is. 
There  is  probably  no  department  of  the  knitting  mill  which 
gives  better  returns  for  good  surroundings  and  good  treatment 
than  the  knitting  room,  and  there  is  only  one  department  which 
gives  better  opportunity  for  resentment  —  that  is  the  dye»room. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  that  economy  consists  in  increas- 
ing production  to  that  point  where  the  income  exceeds  to  the 
greatest  extent  the  out-go.  It  should  not  be  understood  from 
this  that  a  mill  running  cotton  can  change  to  wool  at  an  in- 
creased production  or  at  the  old  production,  for  the  rate  of  pro- 
duction should  always  depend  on  the  conditions.  But  for  any 
given  set  of  conditions  the  tendency  is  to  increase.  Change  of 
yarn  or  of  management  or  of  style  of  goods  may  make  a  sudden 
decrease,  but  as  soon  as  conditions  become  stable,  increase 
should  occur;  the  machinery  is  built  for  it,  the  mill  is  remodeled 
for  it,  survival  requires  it. 

The  difference  between  the  total  income  and  out-go  is  made  up 
of  numerous  factors.  What  are  they?  and  can  they  be  changed 
to  advantage? 


252 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


The  production  cf  a  rib  knitting  machine  in  pounds  for  7.5 
hours  actual  time  is  equal  to 
dia.  in  inches  X  feeds  X  r.p.m.  X  cyl.  needles  per  inch  (cut)  ] 
,  yarn  X  cyl.  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn 
Seven  and  one-half  hours  time  and  needles  per  inch  (or  cut) 
are  taken  in  order  to  eliminate  the  constants,  and  to  leave  in  the 
equation  only  the  variables  which  determine  the  production. 
Evidently,  an  increase  in  any  of  the  factors  above  the  line  in- 
creases the  production,  but  an  increase  in  either  of  the  factors 
below  the  line  decreases  the  production,  and  vice  versa.  This 
formula  answers  the  question,  what  are  the  mechanical  factors 
which  affect  jyoduction.  Whether  they  can  be  changed  to  ad- 
vantage may  be  concluded  after  considering  what  results  will 
be  caused  by  a  change  in  any  one  of  them.  The  formula  should 
be  kept  in  mind  during  the  consideration  of  the  subject. 

Diameter  of  Machine 

Increase  in  the  diameter  without  decrease  in  the  speed  is  the 
same  as  increase  in  the  needle  velocity;  but  as  it  is  much  easier 
to  get  this  by  increase  in  the  speed,  it  is  generally  so  done,  es- 
pecially since  the  diameter  of  the  machine  is  generally  restricted 
by  the  width  of  the  fabric.  But  where  there  is  no  such  re- 
striction, as  sometimes  is  the  case  in  knitting  piece  goods,  and 
where  the  needle  velocity  is  not  at  its  limit,  increase  of  diameter 
not  only  increases  the  production,  but  provides  space  for  ad- 
ditional feeds  with  which  a  still  further  increase  may  be  made. 
The  effects  of  increased  needle  velocity  are  discussed  under 
Revolutions  per  Minute. 

Revolutions  per  Minute,  or  Speed 

This  factor  as  a  means  of  increase  in  production  is  the  one 
most  commonly  considered  and  very  generally  misunderstood. 
Anyone  who  is  familiar  with  knitting  and  visits  knitting  mills  is 
struck  with  the  frequency  with  which  he  is  asked  to  tell  the 
proprietor  how  fast  he  ought  to  run  his  machines,  often  without 
even  seeing  the  knitting  room.  This  question  can  be  answered 
reliably  only  after  consideration  of  the  conditions. 

The  whole  subject  is  analogous  to  an  important  feature  of  the 
speed  question  in  railroading,  i.e.,  to  keep  the  gain  due  to  accel- 
erated speed  more  than  the  increase  in  losses  due  to  increased 


Economics  of  Knitting 


253 


.accidents  and  increased  trouble  resulting  therefrom.    If  a  ma- 
I  chine  doubles  its  speed,  it  requires  four  times  the  force  to  stop 
'  it  in  a  given  distance;  or,  if  the  same  stopping  force  is  used,  the 
I  machine  will  run  farther,  and  will  cause  extra  damage  to  itself 
and  to  the  fabric  if  it  is  deranged.    Fortunately,  in  this  respect, 
reciprocating  needle  machinery  —  to  which  class  most  rib  ma- 
chinery belongs  —  has  a  considerable  friction  load  which  acts 
as  a  constant  brake  so  that  it  stops  quicker  than  purely  rotary 
machinery.    The  many  considerations  which  enter  into  this 
question  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

1.  Winding. 

2.  Yarn,  as  to  material,  kind,  perfection,  size. 

3.  Stitch,  whether  tight  or  loose. 

4.  Machine,  as  to  equipment,  repair  and  adjustment. 

5.  Help,  as  to  character  and  ability. 

I  1.  Winding.  —  There  is  an  adage  that  good  winding  is  half 
of  knitting.  That  was  formulated  before  thread  stop  motions 
were  as  reliable  as  they  are  at  present,  but  the  stop  motion  is 
much  like  the  policeman  —  it  does  not  stop  all  trouble  —  and 
the  stoppage  itself  is  a  loss  and  a  considerable  one  as  the  follow- 
ing discussion  of  feeds  shows.  Therefore,  the  winding  should  be 
good  for  increased  speed. 

2,  The  yam  is  dragged  into  the  machine  at  the  rate  of  about 
9  feet  per  second  against  the  resistance  of  the  cone  or  bobbin,  the 
air,  and  the  numerous  guides  through  which  it  passes.  A  strong, 
smooth  yarn  which  does  not  bend  too  readily  will  go  along 
without  much  trouble;  but  weakness  —  whether  due  to  char- 
acter of  fibre,  size,  or  spinning  —  and  stickiness  —  whether  due 
to  grease,  or  to  wTapping  close  around  the  !_bearing  surfaces  — • 
cause  trouble,  by  making  the  j^arn  more  subject  to  break- 
age and  by  giving  it  more  cause  to  break.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  a  strong  yam  gets  caught,  it  may  break  needles  before  it 
parts,  whereas  a  weak  yarn  would  have  caused  less  trouble  un- 
der the  same  conditions.  Woolen  yarn  is  generally  more  trouble- 
some than  cotton  yarn.  It  contains  grease  which  gums  the 
guides,  burs  which  catch  and  hold  it  on  the  bobbin,  twits  which 
pull  apart  readily,  soft  spots  which  load  up  the  needles,  and  lint 
which  collects  and  binds  the  drop  wires  or  runs  into  the  ma- 
chine in  wads.  Short  staple  cotton  is  much  the  same  except 
that  it  is  stroBger  and  does  not  contain  the  grease.    Lisle  yarn 


254 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


is  the  reverse  of  all  this,  so  it  makes  one  of  the  best  running 
yarns  there  is.  Floss  silk  shdes  readily  and  has  ample  strength, 
but  the  strands  sometimes  sliver  back,  making  little  lumps  in 
the  knitting.  Linen  and  ramie  have  the  strength  and  sliding 
properties  to  feed  readily,  indeed  often  to  come  up  too  freely, 
several  coils  at  a  time;  but  they  resist  bending  so  much  and 
are  so  uneven  that  they  are  prone  to  load  up  the  needles.  The 
whole  subject  is  so  complex  that  practical  experience  is  needed  to 
supplement  the  general  principles. 

3.  Stitch.  —  If  the  stitch  is  tight,  the  speed  should  be  low, 
for  load-ups  at  high  speed  are  damaging.  A  loose  stitch  faciU- 
tates  high  speed. 

4.  Machine.  —  As  a  rule,  rotary  knitting  machinery  is  strong 
enough  to  run  at  a  higher  rate  than  that  which  is  warranted 
by  the  strength  of  the  yarn  and  the  reliability  of  the  stopping 
devices;  but  if  it  is  ui>true  or  inaccurate,  if  the  cams  are  im- 
properly designed,  if  the  wearing  surfaces  are  of  poor  material 
or  improperly  finished,  then  the  machine  itself  limits  the  speed. 
Consequently,  machines  out  of  repair  may  not  be  run  economi- 
cally so  fast  as  similar  machines  in  good  repair.  Also  brand-new 
machines  should  not  be  run  up  to  speed  until  the  wearing  sur- 
faces are  well  smoothed  by  use.  Even  if  the  machine  itself  is 
all  that  could  be  desired,  it  is  impractical  to  run  it  fast  if  it  is 
improperly  adjusted,  say,  if  the  dial  needles  interfere  with  the 
cylinder  needles,  etc. 

The  needles  are  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  machine,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  parts.  If  they  are  nicked,  or  worn,  or  in 
any  w^ay  inferior,  they  limit  the  speed  of  the  machine. 

The  stopping  devices  should  be  good  for  increased  speed,  and 
should  be  adjusted  accordingly,  i.e.,  the  sweep  wires,  etc.,  should 
be  placed  high,  the  brakes  set  to  release  quickly  after  the  power 
is  thrown  off  and  possibly  with  increased  pressure,  etc. 

5.  The  help  is  one  of  the  most  important  considerations  as 
to  whether  increased  speed  is  economical,  since  increased  speed 
calls  for  alacrity.  If  the  speed  of  the  machine  is  increased  one- 
third  and  the  speed  of  the  operator  not  at  all,  then  run  downs 
will  be  one-third  longer  and  other  troubles  will  be  increased. 
Moreover,  with  increased  speed  the  damage  from  smashes  is 
almost  sure  to  increase  to  an  extent,  and  if  this  damage  is  neg- 
lected instead  of  quickly  and  properly  repaired,  it  increases 
itself. 


Economics  of  Knitting 


255 


Feeds 

The  equation  indicates  that  an  increase  in  the  feeds  will  in- 
crease the  production  in  the  same  proportion,  but  this  should  not 
be  inferred,  since  the  equation  does  not  include  waste  and  lost 
time  factors.  The  question  of  the  number  of  feeds  generally 
comes  up  at  the  time  the  machinery  is  purchased  and  the  manu- 
facturer is  usually  a  good  advisor  on  that  subject.  He  knows 
quite  well  how  close  feeds  have  been  put  and  what  the  re- 
sults have  been  and  it  is  to  his  interest  to  advise,  since  he  wants 
tlie  machines  to  give  the  best  all  around  satisfaction.  Then 
there  are  such  considerations  as  possible  pattern  work,  making 
an  even  number  of  feeds  desirable.  But  the  knitter  should 
know  what  the  truly  economical  considerations  are  so  that  he 
may  use  that  knowledge  in  conjunction  with  what  has  already 
been  mentioned  to  adapt  the  number  of  feeds  to  his  particular 
requirements.  Some  of  the  off-sets  to  the  gain  by  increase  in 
the  number  of  feeds  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  lost  time  due  to  ends  running  into  the  stop  motion,  or 
on  into  the  needles  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
feeds.  Suppose  for  illustration  that  one  end  runs  in  once  an 
hour  at  one  feed  and  that  a  minute  is  required  to  restart  the 
machine.  If  the  day  is  ten  hours  long,  the  lost  time  at  that 
feed  is  10  minutes  in  600,  or  1.67  per  cent.  Every  added  feed 
adds  1.67  per  cent  to  the  lost  time,  since  two  ends  do  not  break 
at  once  as  a  rule.  At  the  above  rate  a  five-feed  machine  would 
lose  8.33  per  cent  of  a  day. 

2.  The  damage  to  needles  and  to  fabric  is  somewhat  in- 
creased, since  needle  protectors  are  not  generally  increased  at  the 
same  rate  as  the  feeds,  so  that  a  load-up  or  a  bunch  has  added 
opportunity  to  do  damage  before  the  machine  is  stopped.  There 
are  some  exceptions  to  this,  such  as  that  in  which  a  needle  pro- 
tector is  added  after  a  certain  number  of  feeds  so  that  the  pro- 
tection afterward  is  greater  than  it  was  just  before  that  number 
was  reached. 

Needles  per  Inch,  i.e.,  the  Cut 

Change  in  the  cut  of  the  machine  changes  the  production  in 
the  ratio  of  the  cuts,  i.e.,  a  change  from  8  to  9  cut  changes  the 
production  as  9:8  =  f  =  1.12-2-,  or  12|  per  cent  gain,  -provided 
always  that  all  other  conditions  are  maintained.  Now,  the  yarn 
number  is  determined  to  an  extent  by  the  cut,  and  the  stitch  is 


256 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


determined  similarly  by  the  yarn  number.  Moreover,  the  weight 
of  the  fabric  is  determined  by  both  the  number  of  the  yarn  and 
the  stitch.  So  change  in  the  cut  introduces  complications.  Yet 
the  cut  is  important  among  the  production  factors,  so  the  change 
should  be  considered  on  its  merits. 

Since  it  is  desired  to  increase  production,  an  increase  in  the 
cut  is  the  proposed  change.  Possibly  it  is  already  too  fine, 
and  is  making  more  waste  than  it  should  for  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  fabric  produced;  but  if  this  is  the  case,  it  will  be 
discovered  during  the  consideration  of  the  plan  to  make  it  finer. 

Suppose  the  cut  is  changed  by  one  needle  per  inch,  say, 
changed  from  8  to  9,  but  suppose  the  same  number  of  stitches 
per  foot  of  yarn  is  used.  As  far  as  the  fabric  is  concerned,  this 
is  equivalent  to  an  increase  in  the  diameter  of  the  machine  of  I 
or  12 1  per  cent. 

Therefore, 

(1)  the  fabric  will  be  |  wider. 


Notice  that  the  stitch  is  kept  at  the  same  number  of  needles 
per  foot  of  yarn,  since  it  is  assumed  that  the  cut  is  too  coarse,  so 
the  cut  is  to  be  conformed  to  the  stitch  instead  of  vice  versa. 

Then,  as  far  as  the  fabric  is  concerned,  the  only  change  neces- 
sary is  to  readjust  the  machine  sizes  to  the  width  of  the  fabric. 
This  is  readily  done.  The  main  considerations  are  the  adapta- 
biUty  of  the  cut  to  the  same  yarn.  When  the  cut  is  made  finer, 
the  needles  are  generally  decreased  in  size  and,  consequently,  in 
strength;  moreover,  the  clearance  for  the  yarn  in  and  between 
the  needles  is  decreased,  so  there  is  the  double  objection  that  the 
yarn  is  more  likely  to  load  up  and  that  the  needles  are  more 
readily  damaged.  Consequently,  the  advisability  of  change  in 
the  cut  resolves  itself  into  retention  of  the  gain  due  to  increased 
production  greater  than  the  loss  due  to  increased  needle  breakage 
and  consequent  stoppage.  Evidently,  the  gain  due  to  increased 
production  increases  much  slower  than  the  loss  due  to  crowd- 
ing the  cut,  since  this  involves  not  only  lost  time  but  damaged 
needles  and  damaged  fabric.  Therefore,  the  cut  should  not  be 
made  finer,  unless  it  is  evident  that  the  original  cut  is  coarse 
for  the  yarn.    WTiether  this  is  so  may  be  determined  by  the  rules 


(2)  the  wales  per  inch 

(3)  the  courses  per  inch 

(4)  the  weight  per  square  yard. 


Economics  of  Knitting 


257 


and  tables  given  elsewhere,  or  preferably  in  the  mill  itself  if 
several  different  cuts  or  different  yarn  numbers  are  used. 

Suppose  the  mill  runs  successfully  under  the  same  conditions; 

(a)  7  cut  with  10  yarn,  and 

(6)  10  cut  with  16  yarn. 

Also  suppose  the  question  arises  whether  the  7-cut  machine 
may  advantageously  be  made  finer.  From  the  preceding  it  is 
evident  that  to  make  it  finer  without  change  in  other  conditions 
will  increase  the  production,  which  is  advantageous,  but  will  the 
increased  waste  and  needle  breakage  counterbalance  it? 

Now  the  yarn  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  cut  for 
similar  conditions.  Conversely,  the  cut  is  proportional  to  the 
square  root  of  the  yarn. 


Therefore,  the  7-cut  machine  may  be  changed  to  8  cut  with 
the  result  that  the  new  production  will  be  to  the  old  as  8:  7  =  f  = 
1.143,  or  14.3  per  cent  gain,  and  with  the  expectancy  of  its 
running  as  well  as  the  10-cut  machine. 

If  the  result  had  come  out  less  than  7,  it  would  have  indi- 
cated that  7  cut  was  already  too  fine,  in  which  case  those  ma- 
chines should  be  watched  for  waste,  and  if  it  were  high,  then 
a  change  to  a  coarser  cut  would  be  advisable,  provided  that  the 
loss  from  reduced  production  would  not  be  more  than  the  gain 
from  reduced  waste. 


So  far,  only  the  factors  of  the  equation  above  the  line  have 
been  considered.  It  will  be  noticed  that  none  of  them  affects 
the  weight  per  square  yard  of  the  fabric.    On  the  contrary,  both 


cuta  _  V yarua 


cutb     V  yarub 


i  Vyarna 

cuta  =  CUtb    /  ' 


=  10  VO.625 
=  10  X  0.79 
=  7.9,  say  8. 


Yarn  Number 


258 


The  Science  of  Ivnitting 


I 


of  the  factors  below  the  line  do  affect  the  fabric  in  this  regard. 
Obviously,  if  the  yarn  is  made  heavier,  i.e.,  if  the  number  is  re- 
duced, the  production  in  pounds  will  be  increased.  The  ques- 
tions which  arise  regarding  such  a  change  are  similar  to  those 
regarding  increase  in  the  cut,  except  that  weight,  as  well  as  size, 
readjustment  must  be  considered.  If  increased  weight  per  yard 
is  not  permissible,  then  the  yarn  cannot  be  changed  without  a 
corresponding  change  in  the  stitch.  Suppose  that  the  fabric 
may  be  heavier,  there  will  still  be  doubt  about  the  advisability 
of  making  it  so,  for  if  the  goods  are  sold  by  the  dozen  and  no 
advance  in  price  is  obtained  for  more  weight,  it  would  be  foolish 
to  give  away  some  extra  weight  per  dozen  just  to  reduce  the 
knitting  cost  per  pound.  But  for  the  sake  of  argument  it  may 
be  assumed  that  heavier  weight  goods  may  be  marketed  at 
sufficient  advance  to  pay  for  the  extra  weight  per  square  yard,  as 
may  be  the  case  when  the  fabric  is  sold  in  the  roll.  Then,  of 
course,  whatever  reduction  may  be  made  in  the  cost  per  pound 
of  knitting  is  gain.  So  the  disadvantages  of  decreasing  the 
yarn  number  should  be  considered,  and  if  they  do  not  out- 
weigh the  advantages,  the  change  should  be  made. 

Since  the  yarn  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  cut,  the 
yarn  to  be  used  may  be  determined  just  as  the  cut  was  de- 
termined. For  simplicity,  the  same  conditions  are  assumed  as 
when  the  cut  was  considered,  except  that  now  the  correct  yarn 
number  is  desired  instead  of  the  correct  cut.  The  mill  is  sup- 
posed to  be  running  successfully  under  similar  conditions: 

(a)  7  cut  with  10  yam,  and 

(6)  10  cut  with  16  yarn. 

The  question  is  whether  coarser  yarn  may  be  used  on  7  cut 
and,  if  so,  what  number  will  correspond  to  16  yarn  on  10  cut. 


yarng 
yarnft 


yarna 


7.84,  say  8. 


I 


Economics  of  Knitting 


259 


This  will  change  the  production  as  1/8  :  1/10,  or  as  -V-  =  1.25, 
i.e.,  25  per  cent  gain. 

It  will  increase  the  weight  per  yard  in  the  same  proportion. 

The  width  of  the  fabric  will  be  changed  inversely  as  the  square 
roots  of  the  yarn  numbers,  i.e.,  as 

:  -X=r  =  -^^^-^     Vl.25  =  1.12,  or  12  per  cent  gain. 
VS    VlO  V8 

The  courses  per  inch  will  be  increased  to  the  same  extent. 


Stitches 

The  last  means  to  increase  the  production  is  to  lengthen  the 
stitch,  i.e.,  to  decrease  the  stitches  in  one  foot  of  yarn.  This 
makes  the  fabric  lighter,  since  the  courses  per  inch  decrease 
more  rapidly  than  the  stitches  do. 

Suppose  that  the  cut  is  7  and  that  the  stitches  per  foot  of 
yarn  are  28.     A  change  to  25  stitches  per  foot  changes  the 

1      1  28 
production  as^^  ^  28      25  ^  ^^^^ 

The  width  of  the  fabric  is  not  changed. 

The  running  of  the  machine  is  generally  benefited,  since  a 
loose  stitch  favors  good  running.  Of  course,  if  the  fabric  is 
made  unstable  by  loosening  the  stitch,  then  this  means  of  in- 
creasing the  production  is  not  permissible. 


Conclusion 

It  should  be  evident  from  the  foregoing  that  economical  com- 
binations of  all  of  the  conditions  mentioned  are  not  likely  to 
happen.  Indeed  it  is  singular  that  the  combinations  which  do 
happen  are  sufficiently  economical  to  be  profitable.  But  if 
profit  can  be  made  by  unscientific  methods,  then  careful  in- 
vestigation ought  to  pay  a  good  return. 

One  of  the  first  things  to  do  is  to  calculate  the  theoretical  pro- 
duction of  each  machine.  The  production  tables  and  rules 
already  given  afford  facilities  for  such  calculations  according 
to  whatever  conditions  have  to  be  met.  In  general,  however,  a 
convenient  rule  is: 

Production,  in  pounds  per  day  of  ten  hours,  equals 

dia.  in  inches  X  r.p.m.  X  feeds  X  cylinder  needles  per  inch  (cut) 
1.333  X  cotton  number  of  yarn  X  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn 


260 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Now  for  each  machine  everything  in  this  equation  is  generally 
constant  except  the  yarn  number.  Substitute  in  the  equation 
everything  except  the  3^arn  number,  thereby  getting  a  constant 
which  divided  by  the  yarn  number  at  any  time  that  it  is  con- 
venient gives  the  production  of  that  machine  without  the  trouble 
which  the  whole  calculation  would  involve.  For  instance,  sup- 
pose the  mill  contains  among  others  a  machine  of  the  follow- 
ing details,  dia.  18  inches;  r.p.m.,  52;  feeds,  12;  cut,  8;  stitches 
per  foot  of  yarn,  30.  The  first  four  numbers  multiphed  to- 
gether give  898,560,  which  divided  by  30  X  1.333  (=  40)  gives 
2246.4,  the  number  which  divided  by  the  cotton  jslth  number 
gives  the  production  for  ten  hours  continuous  running.  Con- 
sequently, if  Xo.  10  5'arn  is  used,  the  theoretical  production  is 
224.6  lbs.  The  actual  production  may  be  compared  with  this 
to  obtain  the  lost  time.  If  the  actual  production  is  180  lbs., 
44  6 

the  hours  lost  were  10  X  2045  ^  ^  nearl3^    It  is  not  right  to 

charge  all -of  this  lost  time  to  the  operator,  because  the  machine 
must  stop  for  ends,  as  a  preceding  explanation  shows.  Just 
what  this  stoppage  is,  should  be  determined  by  actual  count  of 
the  stops  on  one  machine,  especially  if  the  production  drops 
down.  Suppose  this  twelve-feed  machine  stops  for  ends  six 
times  an  hour.  Assume  that  the  operator  averages  one  minute 
lost  time  in  getting  the  machine  in  operation.  Then  the  machine 
is  stopped  sixty  minutes  of  the  day,  or  10  per  cent.  Since  there 
are  12  ends,  the  stoppage  chargeable  to  an  end  is  10  ^  12  = 
0.833  per  cent.  Therefore,  a  ten-feed  machine  will  lose  8.33  per 
cent.  'Consequently,  it  would  be  unfair  to  expect  a  man  operating 
machines  with  10  feeds  to  obtain  twice  the  production  of  one 
operating  an  equal  number  of  5-feed  machines.  To  keep  track 
of  the  production  in  this  way  is  to  do  very  much  to  keep  it  up; 
for  if  the  operator  knows  that  his  lost  time  is  checked,  he  will 
be  careful  to  get  to  the  machines  quickly  to  restart  them.  If 
two  machines  are  stopped  at  a  time  he  will  start  first  the  one 
with  the  most  feeds;  and  if  the  yam  comes  bad,  he  wiU  report  it 
quickly  rather  than  accept  unjust  blame.  Moreover,  observa- 
tions of  this  kind  afTord  a  reliable  foundation  for  a  merit  system 
of  remuneration  which  will  be  quickly  satisfactory  to  all  con- 
cerned, instead  of  one  which  will  necessitate  a  probationary 
period  of  readjustment  with  consequent  discouragement  and  dis- 
satisfaction. 


Economics  of  Knitting 


261 


Change  of  Yarn  with  Corresponding  Change  of  Stitch 

One  of  the  commonest  considerations  is  that  of  the  adapta- 
bihty  of  the  yarn  for  the  cut.  This  is  discussed  in  the  preceding 
pages  for  stitch  constant,  but  not  for  change  of  stitch,  which 
however  is  the  most  frequent  combination  in  which  it  is  met. 
For  instance,  a  manufacturer  buys  at  bargain  price  some  sHghtly 
used  machines  which  are  one  or  two  needles  per  inch  coarser 
than  he  is  using.  After  he  has  had  them  for  a  time  he  wonders 
if  they  are  as  much  of  a  bargain  as  they  had  seemed  as  far  as 
production  in  pounds  is  concerned.  How  is  he  to  satisfy  him- 
self? This  can  be  done  by  analysis  of  the  question  or  by  mathe- 
matics.   The  analysis  is  as  follows: 

Since  the  cut  is  coarse  for  the  yarn,  the  question  is  the  same 
as  that  in  which  the  yarn  is  fine  for  the  cut,  so  the  latter  should 
be  considered,  since  it  is  simpler.  Suppose  that  a  certain  cut 
with  a  certain  yarn  gives  the  highest  knitting  economy.  Now 
suppose  that  finer  yarn  is  used.  What  is  the  result  as  far  as 
production  is  concerned?  Since  the  yarn  is  finer,  the  production 
(without  change  of  stitch)  is  changed  in  inverse  proportion  to 
the  j'^arn  number.  That  is,  if  the  change  is  from  No.  10  to 
No.  20,  the  production  is  changed  to  one-half  of  what  it  for- 
merly was,  according  to  the  explanation  given  elsewhere  in  the 
book.  But  fabric  made  under  such  conditions  would  be  sleazy, 
and  so  probably  unsalable.  Consequently,  the  stitches  per  foot 
must  be  increased  in  order  to  make  satisfactory  fabric.  Now  it 
has  already  been  shown  that  it  is  customary  to  increase  the 
stitches  per  foot  just  as  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  decreased. 
But  if  the  stitches  per  foot  are  increased,  then  the  length  of 
yarn  fed  in  a  given  time  is  proportionately  less,  consequently, 
the  production  is  still  further  decreased.  Just  how  much  the 
two  changes  afTect  the  production  is  best  shown  mathematically. 

The  production  of  a  rib  knitting  machine  for  7.5  hours  is 
equal  to 

dia.  in  inches  X  feeds  X  r.p.m.  X  cut 
number  of  yarn  X  cylinder  stitches  per  foot  of  yarn  * 
No  quantity  above  the  line  is  to  be  changed,  but  both  quanti- 
ties below  the  line  are  to  be  increased,  therefore,  the  relative 
production  before  and  after  the  change  is  represented  by  the 
expression 

No.  X  stitches  * 


2G2 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


But  the  stitches  are  proportional  to  the  VNo.  as  reference  to 
the  rules  for  regular  fabrics  shows.  Consequently,  the  produc- 
tion is  proportional  to 

1 

No.  X  VNo^  ' 

But  this  is  a  rather  inconvenient  form  for  the  practical  man. 
It  is  made  more  understandable  and  usable  by  a  reduction  to 

terms  of  the  yarn  diameter.     The  No.  is  proportional  to 

and  the  VNo.  is  proportional  to  •  Therefore,  the  pro- 
duction is  proportional  to  dia.^  Take  the  illustration  already 
given  of  the  change  from  No.  10  yarn  to  No.  20.  Their 
respective  diameters  and  cubes  are  shown  in  the  following 
table. 


Number 

Diameter 

Diameter^ 

10 

20 

15.06 
10.65 

342 
121 

(The  decimal  points  have  been  moved  to  corresponding  con- 
venient places  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  in  pointing-ofT,  which 
is  permissible,  since  only  relative  values  are  desired,  instead  of 
absolute  vo.lues.)  It  is  evident  that  the  production  with  No.  10 
yarn  is  nearly  three  times  that  with  No.  20  yarn.  Of  course, 
the  supposed  change  of  yarn  is  greater  than  any  which  is  apt 
to  occur  in  practice,  but  the  principle  is  true  regardless  of  the 
extent  of  the  change.  Accordingly,  it  is  advisable  to  consider 
before  the  use  of  yarn  too  fine  for  the  cut,  or  what  is  the  same 
thing,  cut  too  coarse  for  the  yam,  for  such  use  very  seriously 
reduces  the  production.  This  reduction,  by  increasing  the  pro- 
duction cost,  increases  the  final  cost,  unless  compensation  is  made 
by  changes  in  other  cost  factors,  such  as  increase  in  speed,  reduc- 
tion in  waste,  etc. 

The  above  discussion  makes  clear  many  questions  which  are 
generally  misunderstood.  For  illustration,  the  manufacture  of 
fine  flat  balbriggan  in  America  is  conducted  on  two  different 
principles:  light  yarn  with  a  tight  stitch,  and  heavy  yarn  with 
a  loose  stitch.    The  light-yarn-tight-stitch  method  gives  such  a 


Minimum  Weight  per  Square  Yard 


263 


comparatively  small  production  that  repeated  efforts  have  been 
made  to  account  for  it  by  the  speed  and  feeds,  but  the  disparity 
there  is  insufficient  without  the  above-mentioned  difference  due 
to  the  yarn  and  the  stitch. 

The  rate  of  production  of  machines  using  jack  sinkers,  and, 
consequently,  having  a  relatively  low  needle  speed,  has  gener- 
ally been  based  on  the  speed  and  feeds  without  considering  the 
important  compensation  which  they  have  in  the  increase  of  pro- 
duction due  to  the  use  of  heavy  yarn,  which  use  is  made  possible 
by  the  jack  sinker. 

Finally,  and  generally,  the  fact  that  the  production  in  pounds 
is  proportional  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  is  useful 
for  the  selection  of  machines  for  special  purposes.  A  machine 
having  loop  wheels  with  fixed  blades  is  especially  adapted  to 
knit  light  yarn,  whereas  a  jack-sinker  machine  is  especially 
fitted  to  knit  heavy  yarn.  It  is  as  uneconomical  to  use  a 
jack-sinker  machine  for  very  light  yarn  as  it  is  to  use  a  loop- 
wheel  machine  for  very  heavy  yarn,  since  the  former  cannot 
give  a  reasonable  production  and  the  latter  will  give  unreason- 
able trouble. 

MINIMUM  WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE  YARD,  YARN-DIAM- 
ETER CONSTANT.  —  DEMONSTRATION 

Illustration  1  shows  four  stitches  of  plain  knit  fabric  with 
four  wales  per  inch  and  one  course  per  inch,  as  seen  with  a  stitch 
glass  having  an  opening  one  inch  by  one  inch. 

The  following  is  evident: 

There  are  eight  threads  crossing  the  opening. 

The  average  distance  between  the  threads  is  one  yarn  diam- 
eter. (This  is  shown  by  the  dotted  circles  of  the  same  diameter 
as  the  yam  and  midway  between  the  ends  of  the  loop.) 

Now,  as  the  courses  per  inch  decrease,  these  threads  will 
approach  the  parallel  position,  becoming  exactly  parallel  v/hen 
the  courses  become  zero;  but  their  distance  apart  will  not  be 
changed,  since  by  supposition  the  yarn  diameter  is  constant. 
Then  a  square  inch  of  fabric  will  be  made  up  of  threads  an 
inch  long,  and  the  number  of  these  threads  will  be  equal  to 
half  the  diameters  per  inch.  These  relations  are  true  no 
matter'  what  units  be  taken,  so  the  weight  per  square  yard 
will  be  the  weight  of  as  many  threads  one  yard  long  as  half 


264 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


the  number  of  diameters  per  yard.  This  is  for  plain  flat 
fabric.  Plain  ribbed  fabric  is  the  same  on  the  back  as  it  is 
on  the  face,  so  it  will  have  twice  as  many  threads.  Therefore, 
the  minimum  weight  of  ribbed  fabric  with  a  given  diameter  of  yarn 
is  the  weight  of  as  many  yards  of  that  yarn  as  there  are  diameters 
per  yard. 
Or, 


Illustration  1. 
Very  loose  stitches,  flat  fabric. 


What  is  the  minimum  weight  in  pounds  per  square  yard  of 
plain  rib  fabric  made  of  No.  23  yarn? 

1  36 
23  X  840  ^  MO  =  -^^^2' 


Brief  Chronological  List  of  Important  Knitting  Inventions. 


265 


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OS 


266  The  Science  of  Knitting 

THEORY  OF  KNIT  FABRICS 

The  primary  object  of  this  book  is  to  supply  useful  informa- 
tion for  practical  knitters.  There  were  two  courses  open  for 
the  accomplishment  of  that  end.  One  was  to  collect,  edit  and 
print  tables  and  rules  from  whatever  source  available.  The 
other  course  was  to  endeavor  to  find  the  fundamental  laws  of 
knitting,  to  derive  comprehensive  tables  from  them,  and  to  put 
the  laws  in  such  simple  form  that  the  practical  knitter  would 
have  available,  reliable  foundation  knowledge  of  his  occupation, 
which  would  not  only  increase  his  usefulness  but  would  enable 
him  to  derive  rules  and  tables  which  would  be  generally  useful, 
instead  of  being  restricted  to  the  practice  of  a  single  mill  as  is 
most  of  the  present  information.  The  latter  course  was  se- 
lected, so  the  task  involved  not  only  the  computation  of  original 
tables  and  the  writing  of  what  was  supposed  to  be  desirable 
explanatory  matter,  but  the  more  difficult  task  of  the  discovery 
and  the  proof  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  a  big  industry  in 
which  so  few  were  known  that  the  industry  was  considered  prac- 
tically lawless.  Only  the  simplest  of  this  research  work  is  thus 
far  included  in  the  book  since  there  is  insufficient  demand  for 
the  remainder  to  warrant  its  publication.  This  limited  demand 
for  theoretical  matter  is  not  the  fault  of  the  individual  knitter, 
but  of  the  industry  as  a  whole.  Even  at  the  present  time  a 
good  knitting  education  is  attained  only  by  practical  applica- 
tion so  continuous  that  general  education  must  be  curtailed. 
One  of  the  causes  of  this  is  the  lack  of  technical  knowledge  of 
the  very  kind  which  this  book  is  designed  to  supply;  which  lack, 
in  turn,  is  due  to  the  absence  of  exact  experimental  knowledge. 
Knitting,  especially  in  America,  is  probably  unique  as  an  im- 
mense industry  without  technical  literature,  without  experiment 
stations,  without  standards,  and  possibly  not  without  schools, 
but  certainly  without  scholars,  for  the  schools  have  little  to  teach 
except  that  which  can  be  obtained  almost  as  well  in  prac- 
tice. They  should  have  what  cannot  be  obtained  in  practice, 
that  is,  the  foundation  principles.  Engineering  in  all  of  its 
branches,  astronomy,  agriculture,  medicine  —  practically  all  im- 
portant divisions  of  human  endeavor  —  are  pushed  along  by 
investigations,  by  schools,  by  colleges,  by  associations,  and  even 
by  the  government.  But  the  knitting  industry,  instead  of  hav- 
ing all  this  assistance,  seems  to  lack  even  the  realization  of 
needing  it. 


Theory  of  Knit  Fabrics 


267 


In  view  of  the  above-mentioned  attitude  of  knitters  regarding 
the  slight  value  of  theory,  it  was  concluded  not  to  devote  any 
space  to  it,  but  this  seemed  unfair  to  the  few  whose  attitude  is 
just  the  reverse,  and  more  than  that  it  seemed  unwise,  since  it 
would  leave  ground  for  the  supposition  that  the  theory  is  not 
founded  in  fact,  whereas  it  is  really  the  expression  of  demon- 
strated facts.  So  it  was  decided  to  outline  the  theory.  How- 
ever, the  explanation  is  made  as  brief  as  possible,  and  in  order 
to  secure  brevity  no  attempt  is  made  to  popularize  the  language 
for  those  who  are  not  used  to  elementary  experimental  science. 

The  laws  are  the  result  of  measurements  of  some  200  samples 
of  rib  fabric  made  in  the  search  for  the  laws  out  of  single-mule- 
spun  carded  cotton  yarn,  which  measurements  were  interpreted 
in  the  hght  of  extensive  experience  with  flat  knit  fabrics  and 
memorandums  of  that  experience.  It  is  not  supposed  that  all 
of  the  laws  are  final.  Indeed  those  under  Case  2  are  only  par- 
tially determined,  owing  to  the  lack  of  sufficient  experimental 
data  to  warrant  definite  determination;  and  it  is  likely  that 
further  investigation  will  show  minor  variations  in  some  of 
those  already  accepted  as  practically  final.  However,  no  law 
has  been  used  which  did  not  appear  to  be  as  reliable  in  practice 
as  the  average  law  used  as  a  basis  of  calculation  in  every-day 
affairs.  It  would  be  highly  desirable  to  give  the  percentage  of 
error  in  these  laws.  So  would  it  be  desirable,  and  even  more  so, 
to  give  the  constants  for  use  with  wool,  worsted,  two-thread 
work,  etc.,  but  this  data  cannot  be  derived  readily  within  rea- 
sonable time  from  private  experiments.  A  fair  idea  of  the  varia- 
tion to  be  expected  may  be  obtained  from  the  tabulation  of 
the  dimensions  of  regular  fabrics.  Let  any  one  interested  com- 
pare the  dimensions  given,  with  those  of  a  few  pieces  of  fabric 
which  meet  the  conditions  of  yarn  and  stitch.  The  proportional 
variation  of  the  actual  dimensions  from  the  theoretical,  will  be 
a  good  criterion  for  the  variation. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  take-up  pull,  hygroscopic  con- 
ditions, error  in  the  yarn  number  or  diameter,  or  in  the  stitches, 
all  enter  into  the  final  error.  Indeed,  one  cause  of  the  lack  of 
scientific  investigation  has  undoubtedly  been  aversion  to  un- 
dertake scientific  work  with  such  unsatisfactory  measures  as 
are  available  in  knitting,  where  no  dimension,  either  of  weight, 
diameter  or  length,  is  readily  obtainable  with  even  fair  accuracy. 

The  following  explanation  of  the  terms  used  is  made  to  avoid 


268 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


cumbering  the  formulas  with  details  which  may  just  as  well  be 
understood  once  for  all. 

Stitches  are  the  number  of  cylinder  needles  per  foot  of  yarn. 

Wales  are  the  number  of  wales  —  or  ribs  —  per  inch  on  one 
side  of  the  fabric. 

Courses  are  the  number  of  courses  per  inch. 

Weight  is  the  weight  in  pounds  of  a  square  yard  of  fabric. 

Diameter  is  the  sensible  diameter  of  the  yarn  in  inches  —  not 
the  diameter  obtained  from  the  specific  gravity. 

Number  is  the  cotton  number  of  the  yarn. 

The  theory  is  developed  for  normal  plain  rib  fabrics,  i.e.,  fabrics 
in  which  each  and  every  loop  in  a  course  is  tangent  to  the 
adjacent  loops  in  the  same  course,  but  is  not  tangent  to  loops 
of  adjoining  courses;  or  in  popular  language,  fabrics  which  are 
neither  sleazy  nor  boardy  and  have  properly  formed  loops. 

It  is  evident  that  the  equations  apply  also  to  plain  fiat  knit- 
ting, and  probably  to  other  kinds  of  knitting.  The  only  difTer- 
ence  is  in  the  constants. 

Case  1.  —  Stitches  constant  and  yarn  number  variable.. 
Chart  1. 


All  these  are  straight-line  curves.  No.  1  is  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  diameters.  The  others  pass  through  the  origin,  but  do  not 
extend  to  infinity,  since  the  stitch  tightens  to  the  breaking  point 
within  finite  limits. 


This  curve  is  of  hyperbolic  form.  For  dia.  =  0,  wales  =oo, 
and  for  dia.  =  oo ,  wales  =  0,  theoretically  only,  since  this  is  re- 
stricted for  large  diameters  just  as  are  Nos.  2  and  3. 

The  weight  per  square  yard  is  obtained  by  combining  these 
equations  with  the  weight  per  square  yard  formula  which  is 
fully  explained  elsewhere  in  the  book.  No  explanation  is  required 
hero,  except  that  this  formula  is  not  dependent  on  theory  but  on 
facts,  hence  it  may  properly  be  used  for  demonstration.  This 
formula  is 


wales  X  courses   =  a  constant 
width  =  dia.  X  a  constant 

courses  =  dia.  X  a  constant 


wales  = 


a  constant 


(4) 


dia. 


weight  = 


wales  X  courses 


1.944  number  X  stitches 


Theory  of  Knit  Fabrics 


269 


Relations  of  Rib-fabric  Dimensions  for  Stitches  per  Foot  of  Yarn  Constant 
(30.8)  and  Size  of  Yarn  Variable. 


1 

M  M  1 

1 

1  1  1  1 

1 

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i'S 

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cS 

100) 

V 

videi 

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r- 

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I. 

A 

1 

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s 
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plied 

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- 

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1 

Chart  1.    Case  1. 

Select  the  yam  diameter  on  the  left,  follow  its  horizontal  line  to  the  right  to 
the  curve,  and  then  follow  the  vertical  line  to  the  scale  at  the  bottom. 

For  instance,  for  yarn  0.010  inches  in  diameter: 

wales  X  courses  =  34  X  10  =  340.000 

courses  =  13.700 

wales  =  25.000 

width  of  flattened  tube  from  88  needles  =  1.760 
weight  per  square  yard  =  24.2  -r-  100        =  0.242 


270 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


V-IO 

0=: 


Pi  2 


v 

r 

y- 

\ 

j 

\ 

i 

\ 

f 

6 

f 

% 

/ 

/ 

r 

> 

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t 

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ft 

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I-        »        O  -tl 


Chart  2.   Case  3. 

The  diagonal  is  the  curve  of  the  weight  per  square  yard  multiplied  by  100. 
Select  the  yarn  diameter  on  the  left,  follow  its  horizontal  line  to  the  right  to 

the  curve,  and  then  follow  the  vertical  line  to  the  scale  at  the  bottom. 
For  instance,  for  yarn  .010  inches  in  diameter: 
wales  = 


courses  = 
stitches  per  foot  = 
weight  per  sq.  yd.  = 


38  -r-  100 


25.00 
31.30 
46.70 
0.38 


Theory  of  Knit  Fabrics  271 

But  from  No.  1  for  stitches  constant, 

wales  X  courses  =  a  constant. 

Therefore, 

weight  X  number  =  a  constant  (6) 

But  from  the  definition  of  yarn  number, 

,         a  constant 

number  =   —  • 

dia^. 

Substituting  this  value  for  number  in  (6) 

weight  =  dia.2  X  a  constant  (7) 

Therefore,  the  weight  curve  is  a  parabola  with  its  vertex  at  zero 
diameter. 

Case  2.  —  Diameter  constant  and    stitches    variable.  No 


chart,  since  such  determinations  as  were  made  can  be  shown 
readily  without. 

Wales  =  a  constant  except  for  slight  increase  with  increase 
of  stitches. 

Width  =  a  constant  except  for  slight  decrease  with  increase  of 
stitches. 

Courses  are  proportional  to  stitches,  but  not  directly  so. 
Weight  is  proportional  to  stitches,  but  not  directly  so. 
The  forms  of  the  course  and  weight  curves  were  not  definitely 
determined.    The  minimum  weight  =  wt.  of  1  yard  of  yarn 

X       ,  as  is  explained  in  the  demonstration  given  elsewhere  of 

"  minimum  weight  per  square  yard." 

Case  3.  —  Loop  proportional  to  diameter  of  yarn.  Chart  2. 
This  is  the  general  case.  Fabrics  under  it  are  called  regular 
fabrics  in  this  book,  because  the  rules  are  worked  out  for  it 
quite  completely.  For  the  principles  see  Elements  of  Knitting 
in  this  book,  also  an  article  in  the  "  Textile  Manufacturers 
Journal,"  March  9,  1912,  entitled  Science  in  Knitting.  No 
special  experimental  work  was  done  in  this  case,  since  the  theory 


was  regarded  as  sufficiently  substantiated  without  it. 

wales     X  dia.  =  a  constant  (8) 

courses  X  dia.  =  a  constant  (9) 

stitches  X  dia.  =  a  constant  (10) 

These  curves  are  all  of  hyperbolic  form,  so  for  dia.  =  0,  all  = 
00 .    Dia.  =  CO ,  all  =  0. 


272 


The  Science  of  Kjiitting 


The  weight  formula 
weight  X  1.944  X  number  X  stitches  =  wales  X  courses, 

with  the  above  values  and  dia.  instead  of  number  substituted, 
becomes 

•  1  X  V.  const.  ^,  const.        1        const.  ^,  const, 
weight  X -gj^  X  -5^  =  j^gjj  X -35^  X 

from  which, 

weight  =  dia.  X  a  constant  (11) 

Consequently,  the  weight  curve  is  a  straight  line  passing  through 
0  and  X . 

(8)  X  (  9)    wales  X  courses  X  dia.^     =  a  constant.  .  (12) 
(10)  X  (10)    stitches^  X  dia.2  =  a  constant.  .  (13) 

/ION     wales  X  courses  ,  ^ 

^^^^^^^^^         stitches-^   =  constant..    .  (14) 

THEORY  OF  KNIT  FABRICS  —  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

Although  the  theory-  itself  is  rather  technical  for  knitters  as  a 
rule,  still  the  general  considerations  are  not,  and  they  should  be 
read  in  order  to  obtain  a  better  understanding  of  the  results 
worked  out  by  the  theory. 

In  the  practical  apphcation  of  the  rules  and  formulas  the  in- 
vestigator should  consider  three  important  questions:  (1)  pos- 
sibility of  a  misunderstanding  of  a  principle;  (2)  possible  errors 
due  to  mistakes  in  interpreting  the  experiments;  (3)  differences 
of  opinion  where  opinion  has  to  be  used.  In  regard  to  No.  1,  it 
is  believed  that  no  principle  has  been  mistaken.  As  to  No.  2, 
further  investigation  may  show,  for  instance,  that  for  stitches 
constant,  the  weight  per  square  yard  is  not  exactly  inversely 
proportional  to  the  yarn  number.  But  even  if  it  does  so  show, 
the  simpUcity  of  this  rule  and  its  practical  accuracy  will  un- 
doubtedly keep  it  in  use.  However,  this  should  not  stand  in 
the  way  of  a  more  accurate  rule  if  one  is  obtainable.  Regarding 
No.  3,  differences  of  opinion  are  bound  to  occur,  for  there  is  no 
accounting  for  tastes.  But  they  can  be  reduced  by  an  explana- 
tion of  the  considerations  on  which  the  opinions  are  based.  Con- 
sequently, the  following  explanations  are  made: 

(cut^ 
yarn  =  — ^  for  rib  machines,  and  yam  = 

gauge'  " 


40 


-) 


are  not  supposed  to  be  restrictive  any  more  than  to  say 


Theory  of  Knit  Fabrics  —  General  Considerations  273 

a  man  walks  three  miles  an  horn'  is  to  mean  that  he  can  neither 
loiter  nor  run.  Everybody  knows  to  the  contrary,  but  to  en- 
able mutual  understanding  it  is  desirable  to  have  an  agreed 
average  standard.  The  same  holds  true  for  the  selection  of 
wales  to  courses  as  1  is  to  1.25,  and  for  the  selection  of  the  speed 
standards.  Probably  before  long  the  limits  of  yarn,  speed,  and 
ratio  of  wales  to  courses  will  be  determined,  and  tables  will  be 
calculated  for  short  intervals  between  these,  so  that  the  fabric 
dimensions  and  related  values  can  be  found  for  practically  all 
conditions.  But  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  base  such  elab- 
orate calculations  on  such  disproportionately  scant  observations. 

It  is  likely  that  the  stitches  per  foot  used  will  be  found  to 
make  rather  tight  fabric  for  good  running  conditions  on  some 
machines.  This  is  to  be  expected,  since  the  theory  is  developed 
from  consideration  of  the  fabric  rather  than  of  the  machine. 
Consequently,  if  some  machine  of  some  particular  cut  is  un- 
symmetrically  designed  —  and  all  machines  made  in  a  series  of 
cuts  are  so,  since  it  is  impractical  to  make  them  otherwise  —  the 
formulas  should  not  be  considered  erroneous  for  not  conforming 
to  that  particular  machine.  Indeed,  one  of  the  big  advantages 
of  the  principles  of  knitting  is  the  impetus  which  will  be  given  to 
systematic  knitting  machine  design.  For  instance,  the  design 
of  loop-wheel  knitting  machinery  has  been  lamentably  faulty 
on  the  finer  gauges,  owing  partially  to  the  fact  that  there  was 
not  enough  call  for  such  gauges  to  warrant  the  manufacturer  in 
going  to  more  trouble  than  to  put  more  needles  in  the  cylinder 
and  more  blades  in  the  burs.  Consequently,  the  burs  were 
inordinately  big  and  the  needles  ridiculously  long  for  the  work 
which  they  had  to  do.  Such  machines  will  not  knit  according 
to  the  rule  on  fine  gauges,  which  is  not  the  fault  of  the  rule,  but 
of  the  machine,  for  generally  what  a  machine  does  on  one  gauge, 
it  should  do  on  another. 

This  deficiency  of  machines  on  the  extreme  gauges  (coarse 
and  fine)  is  generally  true  of  all  types.  In  some  cases  it  is  ap- 
parently unavoidable,  but  in  many  cases  it  could  be  partially 
remedied,  at  least,  by  designing  the  machine  in  conformity  with 
the  work  which  it  has  to  do. 

One  of  the  most  important  requisites  for  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  is  the  accurate  determination  of  the 
yarn  diameter.  Evidently  much  work  must  be  done  in  this  line 
on  every  different  kind  of  material  with  different  twists  and 


274 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


different  methods  of  spinning,  etc.    The  diameter  here  used, 

namely  7  seems  to  be  somewhat  greater  than  it  should 

21  VNo. 

be,  as  the  fabric  width  given  by  it  for  flat-work  ckcular  machines 
indicates,  namely  1.26,  which  is  considerably  higher  than  the 
1.1  generally  allowed.  However,  it  has  been  considered  best  to 
give  the  formulas  just  as  they  work  out,  and  not  to  shade  them 
in  the  least,  so  that  the  user  may  learn  just  how  much  depend- 
ence he  may  put  in  them,  and  may  make  his  o^ti  shading  once 
for  all.  Even  when  excessive  shading  is  required,  the  formulas 
are  useful  as  a  proportional  guide,  which  is  better  than  no  guide 
at  all. 

The  Strength  of  Knit  Fabrics 

Two  factors  are  considered  in  the  strength  question;  namely, 
the  number  of  threads  which  sustain  the  stress,  and  the  strength 
per  thread. 

The  number  of  threads  crosswise  of  the  fabric  is  evidently  the 
number  of  courses  per  inch,  and  the  number  of  threads  length- 
wise of  the  fabric  is  the  number  of  wales  per  inch  multiphed  by 
two  or  by  four  according  to  whether  the  fabric  is  flat  or  ribbed. 

The  strength  per  thread  is  based  on  the  Draper  Tables  of 
Breaking  Weight  of  American  Yarn.  The  values  used  are  the 
New  Breaking  Weight  of  Soft  Twist  Yarn,  according  to  which 
the  tensile  strength  per  square  inch  of  sensible  cross-sectional 
area  of  No.  20  is  7671  pounds,  based  on  the  diameter  equal  to 
1  -i-  21  VNo.,  from  which  it  follows  that  the  tensile  strength 
of  the  yarn  is  very  nearly  6000  X  (diameter)^,  which  value  has 
been  used  in  calculating  the  formulas,  since  the  strength  of  yarn 
is  approximately  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  diameter, 
with  variation  of  a  greater  decrease  in  strength  than  in  diameter. 
The  use  of  6000  X  (diameter)^  for  the  strength  of  the  3'am  makes 
No.  4  weaker  by  13  per  cent  than  the  actual  tests  show,  and 
makes  No.  30  stronger  by  8  per  cent ;  but  these  variations  are 
probably  no  more  than  would  be  found  in  different  sections  of 
any  one  yarn. 

The  following  pages  are  copied  by  permission  from  Kent's 
"Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket  Book." 


Knots 


275 


Varieties  of  Knots.  —  A  great  number  of  knots  have  been  devised  of 
which  a  few  only  are  illustrated,  but  tliose  selected  are  the  most  frequently 
used.  In  the  cut,  Fig.  81,  they  are  shown  open,  or  before  being  drawn 
taut,  in  order  to  show  the  position  of  the  parts.  The  names  usually 
given  to  them  are: 


A.  Bight  of  a  rope. 

B.  Simple  or  Overhand  knot. 

C.  Figure  8  knot. 

D.  Double  knot. 

E.  Boat  knot. 

F.  Bowline,  first  step. 

G.  Bowhne.  second  step. 

H.  BowUne  completed. 

I.  Square  or  reef  knot. 

J.  Sheet  bend  or  weaver's  knot. 

K.  Sheet  bend  with  a  toggle. 

L.  Carrick  bend. 

M.  Stevedore  knot  completed. 

N.  Stevedore  knot  commenced. 

O.  Shp  knot. 


P.  Flemish  loop. 

Q.  Chain  knot  with  toggle. 

R.  Half-hitch. 

S.  Timber-hitch. 

T.  Clove-hitch. 

U.  Rolhng-hitch. 

V.  Timber-hitch  and  half-hitch. 

W.  Blackwall-hitch. 

X.  Fisherman's  bend. 

Y.  Round  turn  and  half-hitch 

Z.  Wall  knot  commenced. 

AA.  Wall  knot  completed. 

BB.  Wall  knot  crown  commenced. 

CC.  Wall  knot  crown  completed. 


Knots. 


27G  The  Science  of  Knitting 


RATIO  AXD  PROPORTION. 

Ratio  Is  the  relation  of  one  number  to  another,  as  obtained  by  dividing 
the  first  number  by  the  second.    Synonymous  with  quotient. 

Ratio  of  2  to  4,  or  2  :  4  =  2/4=  1/2. 
Ratio  of  4  to  2,  or  4  :  2  =  2. 

Proportion  is  the  equality  of  two  ratios.  Ratio  of  2  to  4  equals  ratio 
of  3  to  6,  2/4=3/6;  expressed  thus,  2  :  4  ::  3  :  6:  read,  2  is  to  4  as  3  is  to  6. 

The  first  and  fourth  terms  are  called  the  extremes  or  outer  terms,  the 
second  and  third  the  means  or  inner  terms. 

The  product  of  the  means  equals  the  product  of  the  extremes: 

2  :  4  :  :  3  :  6;    2  X  6  =  12;    3  X  4  =  12. 

Hence,  given  the  first  three  terms  to  find  the  fourth,  multiply  the 
second  and  third  terms  together  and  divide  by  the  first. 

4X3 

2  :  4  :  :  3  :  what  number?    Ans.  — ~  =  6. 

Algebraic  expression  of  proportion.  — a  :  b  :  :  c  :  d;  ^  =  ^:  arf  «"6c; 

,  ,  -  be    ,     be    ,     ad  ad 

from  which  a  =  -r;a=  —  ;  o=  —  ;  c  =  -y  * 
a  a  c  0 

From  the  above  equations  may  also  be  derived  the  following: 

b  :  a:  :d  :  c       a  +  b  :  a  :  :c  +  d  :  c       a  +  b  :  a  ~  b  :  :  c  +  d  ;  c  —  d 

a  :  c::b  :d       a  +  b  :  b  :  :  c  +  d  :  d  :  bn  :  ^      :  d'^ 

a  :  b  =  c  :  d       a  —  b  :  b  :  :  c  —  d  :  d       y^ci  :         :  : 

a  —  b  :  a  :  :  c  —  d  :  c 

Mean  proportional  between  two  given  numbers,  1st  and  2d,  is  such 
a  number  that  the  ratio  which  the  first  bears  to  it  equals  the  ratio  which  it 
bears  to  the  second.    Thus,  2:4::4:8;4isa  mean  proportional  between 

2  and  8.  To  find  the  mean  proportional  between  two  numbers,  extract 
the  square  root  of  their  product. 

Mean  proportional  of  2  and  8  =  ^2X8  =  4. 

Single  Rule  of  Three;  or,  finding  the  fourth  term  of  a  proportion 

when  three  terms  are  given.  —  Rule,  as  above,  when  the  terms  are  stated 
in  their  proper  order,  multiply  the  second  by  the  third  and  divide  by  the 
first.  The  difficulty  is  to  state  the  terms  in  their  proper  order.  The 
term  which  is  of  the  same  kind  as  the  required  or  fourth  term  is  made  the 
third;  the  first  and  second  must  be  like  each  other  in  kind  and  denomina- 
tion. To  determine  wloich  is  to  be  made  second  and  which  first  requires 
a  little  reasoning.  If  an  inspection  of  the  problem  shows  that  the  answer 
should  be  greater  than  the  third  term,  then  the  greater  of  the  other  two 
given  terms  should  be  made  the  second  term  —  otherwise  the  first.  Thus, 

3  men  remove  54  cubic  feet  of  rock  in  a  day;  how  many  men  will  remove 
in  the  same  time  10  cubic  yards?  The  answer  is  to  be  men  —  make  men 
third  term;  the  answer  is  to  be  more  than  three  men,  therefore  make  the 
greater  quantity,  10  cubic  yards,  the  second  term ;  but  as  it  is  not  the  same 
denomination  as  the  other  term  it  must  be  reduced,  =  270  cubic  feet. 
The  proportion  is  then  stated: 

3  X  270 

54  :  270  :  :  3  :  x  (the  required  number);  x  =  — —  =  15  men. 

The  problem  is  more  complicated  if  we  increase  the  number  of  given 
terms.  Thus,  in  the  above  question,  substitute  for  the  words  "in  the 
same  time"  the  words  "in  3  days."  First  solve  it  as  above,  as  if  the  work 
were  to  be  done  in  the  same  time;  then  make  another  proportion,  stating 
it  thus:  If  15  men  do  it  in  the  same  time,  it  will  take  fewer  men  to  do  it  in 
3  days;  make  1  day  the  second  term  and  3  days  the  first  term.  3:1:: 
15  men  :  5  men. 


Ratio  and  Proportion 
Decimal  Equivalents  of  Fractions  of  One  Inch. 


277 


1-64 
1-32 
3-64 
1-16 

.015625 
.03125 
.046875 
.0625 

17-64 
9-32 
19-64 
5-16 

.265625 
.28125 
.296875 
.3125 

33-64 
17-32 
35-64 
9-16 

.515625 
.53125 
.546875 
.5625 

49-64 
25-32 
51-64 
13-16 

.765625 
.78125 
.796875 
.8125 

5-64 
3-32 
7-64 
1-8 

.078125 
.09375 
.109375 
.125 

21-64 
1 1-32 
23-64 
3-8 

.328125 
.34375 
.359375 
.375 

37-64 
19-32 
39-64 
5-8 

.578125 
.59375 
.609375 
.625 

53-^4 
27-32 
55-64 
7-8 

.828125 
.84375 
.859375 
.875 

9-64 
5-32 
11-64 
3-16 

.140625 
.15625 
.171875 
.1875 

25-64 
13-32 
27-64 
7-16 

.390625 
.40625 
.421875 
.4375 

41-64 
21-32 
43-64 
11-16 

.640625 
.65625 
.671875 
.6875 

57-64 
29-32 
59-64 
15-16 

.890625 
.90625 
.921875 
.9375 

13-64 
7-32 

15-64 
1-4 

.203125 
.21875 
.234375 
.25 

29-64 
15-32 
31-64 
1-3 

.453125 
.46875 
.484375 
.50 

45-64 
23-32 
47-64 
3-4 

.703125 
.71875 
.734375 
.75 

61-64 
31-32 
63-64 
1 

.953125 
.96875 
.984375 
1. 

Long  Measure.  —  Measures  of  Length. 

12  inches  =  1  foot. 

3  feet  =  1  yard. 

1760  yards,  or  5280  feet  =  1  mile. 

Additional  measures  of  length  in  occasional  use:  1000  mils  =  1  inch; 
4  inches  =  1  hand;  9  inches  =  1  span;  2 1/2  feet  =  1  military  pace;  2  yards 
=  1  fathom;  51/2  yards,  or  16 1/2  feet  =  1  rod  (formerly  also  called  pole  or 
perch). 

Measures  of  Weight.  —  Avoirdupois,  or  Commercial 
Weight. 

16  drachms,  or  437.5  grains  =  1  ounce,  oz. 


16  ounces,  or  7000  grains 

28  pounds 
4  quarters 

20  hundred  weight 
2000  pounds 
2204.6  pounds 


1  pound,  lb. 
=  1  quarter,  qr. 

=  1  hundredweight,  cwt.  =  112  lbs. 
=  1  ton  of  2240  lbs.,  gross  or  long  ton. 
=  1  net,  or  short  ton. 
1  metric  ton. 


1  stone  =  14  pounds;  1  quintal  =  100  pounds. 

The  drachm,  quarter,  hundredweight,  stone,  and  quintal  are  now 
seldom  used  in  the  United  States. 


Measures  of  Work,  Power,  and  Duty. 

Work.  —  The  sustained  exertion  of  pressure  through  space. 

Unit  of  work.  —  One  foot-pound,  i.e.,  a  pressure  of  one  pound  exerted 
through  a  space  of  one  foot. 

Horse-power.  —  The  rate  of  work.  Unit  of  horse-power  =  33,000 
ft. -lbs.  per  minute,  or  550  ft  .-lbs.  per  second  =  1,980,000  ft  .-lbs.  per  hour. 

Heat  unit  =  heat  required  to  raise  1  lb.  of  water  1°  F.  (from  39°  to  40°). 

33000 

Horse-power  expressed  in  heat  units  =  •        =  42.416  heat  units  per 
minute  =  0.707  heat  unit  per  second  =  2545  heat  units  per  hour. 
1  lb.  Of  fuel  per  H.  P.  per  hour  -  {  >:itrheat"ui'Js-       " '  " 

1,000,000  ft.-lbs.  per  lb.  of  fuel  =  1.98  lbs.  of  fuel  per  H.  P.  per  hour., 

22 

X  miles  per  hour. 


5280 

Velocity, — Feet  per  second  =  ^^-jr- 

obOO 


15 


Gross    tons   per   mile  =        =  J-^  lbs.  per  yaxd  (single  rail.) 


278  The  Science  of  Knitting 


SQUARES,    CUBES,   SQUARE  ROOTS  AND   CUBE  ROOTS 


INO. 

S  uare 
quare. 

Cube. 

Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

No. 

Square. 

Cube. 

Sq. 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

.  

0.1 

.01 

.001 

a  1 

Q  Al 

y.o  1 

9Q  701 

zy./y  1 

1  7A  1 
1  ./O  1 

1 .458 

.15 

.0225 

.0034 

<;a  1  % 

.05  1  J 

.2 

in  OA 

a9  7Aft 

1  7ftQ 

i  .474 

2 

.04 

.008 

.4472 

.5848 

.3 

10.89 

35.937 

1.817 

1.489 

.25 

.0625 

.0156 

.500 

.6300 

.4 

1 1.56 

39.304 

1.844 

1.504 

.3 

.09 

.027 

A  AO /I 

c 
.J 

lA.ZO 

/19  ft75 

I  ft7  1 
1  .0/  1 

1 .5 18 

.35 

.1225 

.0429 

RQ  1  A 

A 
.O 

1  9  OA 
\A.\ft3 

/lA  AI^A 

40.050 

I  fl07 

1 .533 

.4 

16 

.064 

.6325 

.7 

13.69 

50.653 

1  .yz4 

1 .547 

.45 

.2025 

.0911 

.6708 

.7663 

.8 

14.44 

54.872 

1.949 

1.560 

.5 

.25 

.125 

.7071 

.7937 

.9 

15.21 

59.319 

1.975 

1.574 

.55 

.3025 

1  AA/l 

.  I004 

.7416 

R 1  oa 
.0 1  yj 

4. 

1  A 

AA 

04. 

A. 

1 .5874 

.6 

.36 

9  1  f\ 
.L  \  O 

774A 

t 

.  1 

1  A  fit 
1  O.O  1 

Afi  09  1 

oo.y/ 1 

o  ooc 

1  AO  1 

1  .OU 1 

.65 

.4225 

.OUOZ 

ft  A  AO 

-> 

1  7  A/t 
1  /  .04 

7A  Oftft 

2.049 

1 .61 3 

.7 

.49 

.343 

.8367 

.8879 

.3 

18.49 

79.507 

2.074 

1.626 

.75 
.8 

.5625 

.4219 

.8660 

.9086 

.4 

19.36 

85.184 

2.098 

1.639 

.64 

..7  1  ^ 

.oy44 

Q9ft'^ 

c 
.3 

on  91 

Q 1  19"^ 

y  1 . 1 Z5 

2.121 

1   Al  1 

1 .05  1 

.85 

.7225 

.O  1  'f  1 

.yz  1  y 

Q/i7a 
.y4/:) 

A 
.o 

9  1    I A 
/  1 . 1 0 

Q7  aaA 

^/ .550 

2.145 

1  AaI 

1 .003 

.9 

.81 

.1  irf 

.9487 

.yoj  J 

.7 

22.09 

1  oa  a-ji 

2.168 

1 .075 

.95 

.9025 

.8574 

.9747 

.9830 

.8 

23.04 

110.592 

2.191 

1.687 

1. 

1. 

1. 

1. 

1. 

.9 

24.01 

1 1 7.649 

2.214 

1.698 

1.05 

1 . 1 025 

1 . 1 30 

1  mi; 

1  ni  A 
1  .U 1 0 

5. 

91 
AO. 

1  91^ 

2.2361 

t   7  1  OO 

1 ./  lUU 

1.1 

1.21 

1  .J  J  1 

\  .U4y 

1  (\'X'y 
\  .VoZ 

.  1 

9A  n  1 
ZO.U  1 

1  a9  Ai^  1 
1 5Z.OJ  1 

2.258 

1  79  1 

1  .1 A  1 

1.15 

1  .ji.  \ 

1  f\Ty 
1  .U/Z 

97  nA 
.U4 

1  An  AOft 

2.280 

1  7a9 
1 .1 5A 

1.2 

1.44 

1.728 

1.095 

1.063 

.3 

28.09 

148.877 

2.302 

1.744 

1.25 

1.5625 

1.953 

1.118 

1.077 

.4 

29.16 

157.464 

2.324 

1.754 

1.3 

1 .69 

1 . 1 40 

1  no  1 

1  .uy  1 

.0 

ao  on 

166.375 

2.345 

1  7An 
1  ./05 

1 .35 

1 .8225 

2.460 

1.162 

1 . 1 U5 

.6 

5  1 .30 

1 75.616 

2.366 

1  77A 
1  .//O 

1.4 

1 .96 

2.744 

1.183 

1.119 

.7 

32.49 

185. 193 

2.387 

1 .786 

1.45 

2.1025 

3.049 

1.204 

1.132 

.8 

33.64 

195.112 

2.408 

1.797 

1.5 

2.25 

3.375 

1 .2247 

1.1447 

.9 

34.81 

205.379 

2.429 

1.807 

1 .55 

2.4025 

a  70/1 

1 .245 

1  1  <;7 
1.15/ 

6. 

36. 

216. 

2.4495 

1.8171 

1 .6 

Z.DO 

4.uyo 

1 .265 

1  1  7rv 

.  1 

37.21 

OOA  OQ  1 

2.470 

1 .827 

1  .OD 

A.J 

4.492 

1 .285 

1    1  AO 

1 . 1 OZ 

.2 

38.44 

oafl  a  Oft 

2.490 

1  fia7 

1.7 

2.89 

4.913 

1.304 

1.193 

.3 

39.69 

250.047 

2.510 

1.847 

1.75 

3.0625 

5.359 

1.323 

1.205 

.4 

40.96 

262.144 

2.530 

1.857 

1 .8 

I>.o.)Z 

1 .342 

1 .216 

.5 

42.25 

274.625 

2.550 

1 .866 

1 .00 

3.4223 

6.332 

1 .360 

1 .228 

.6 

43.56 

287.496 

2.569 

1 .876 

1  o 

J.O  1 

1 .378 

1  .zjy 

.7 

44.89 

300.763 

2.588 

1 .885 

1.95 

3.8025 

7.415 

1.396 

1.249 

.8 

46.24 

314.432 

2.608 

1.895 

2. 

4. 

8. 

1.4142 

1.2599 

.9 

47.61 

328.509 

2.627 

1.904 

.  1 

4.4 1 

9.261 

1 .449 

1 .281 

7. 

49. 

343. 

2.6458 

1 .9125 

1 0.648 

1 .483 

1 .301 

.1 

50.41 

357.91 1 

2.665 

1 .922 

.3 

5.29 

12.167 

1.517 

1.320 

.2 

51.84 

373.248 

2.683 

1.931 

.4 

5.76 

13.824 

1.549 

1.339 

.3 

53.29 

389.017 

2.702 

1.940 

.5 

6.25 

15.625 

1.581 

1.357 

.4 

54.76 

405.224 

2.720 

1.949 

.6 

6.76 

17.576 

1.612 

1.375 

.5 

56.25 

421.875 

2.739 

1.957 

.7 

7.29 

19.683 

1.643 

1.392 

.6 

57.76 

438.976 

2.757 

1.966 

.8 

7.84 

21.952 

1.673 

1.409 

.7 

59.29 

456.533 

2.775 

1.975 

.9 

8.41 

24.389 

1.703 

1.426 

.8 

60.84 

474.552 

2.793 

1.983 

3. 

9. 

27. 

1.7321 

1.4422 

.9 

62.41 

493.039 

2.811 

1.992 

Squares,  Cubes,  Square  and  Cube  Roots 


279 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Sn 
oq. 

Root. 

1  Cube 
Root. 

No. 

Square 

1 

;  Cube. 

Sn 
k3q. 

Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

64. 

512. 

2.828^ 

\  2. 

45 

2025 

91 125 

6.7082 

1  3.5569 

.1 

65  61 

531  44 

2  846 

2  008 

46 

21 16 

97336 

6.7823 

'  3.5830 

.2 

67  lA 

551  366 

2  864 

2  017 

47 

2209 

103823 

6  8557 

3.6088 

.3 

68.89 

571.787 

2  881 

2.025 

48 

2304 

1 10592 

6.9282 

3^6342 

.4 

70.56 

592.704 

2.898 

2.033 

49 

2401 

1 1 7649 

7. 

3.6593 

.5 

72.25 

6l4.I25 

2.915 

2.041 

50 

2500 

125000 

7.071  1 

3.6840 

.6 

73.96 

636.056 

2.933 

2.049 

51 

2601 

132651 

7.1414 

3  7084 

.7 

75.69 

658.503 

2  950 

2.057 

52 

2704 

1 40608 

7.21  1  1 

3  7325 

.8 

77.44 

681.472 

2  966 

2.065 

53 

2809 

148877 

7.280! 

3.7563 

.9 

79.21 

704.969 

2.983 

2.072 

54 

2916 

157464 

7.3485 

3.7798 

9. 

81. 

729. 

3. 

2.0801 

55 

3025 

166375 

7.4162 

3.8030 

.1 

82.81 

753.571 

3.017 

2.088 

56 

3136 

175616 

7.4833 

3.8259 

.2 

84.64 

778.688 

3  033 

2  095 

57 

3249 

185193 

7.5498 

3  8485 

.3 

86.49 

804.357 

3  050 

2  103 

58 

3364 

1951 12 

7.6158 

3  8709 

.4 

88.36 

830.584 

3.066 

2.1  10 

59 

3481 

205379 

7.681 1 

3.8930 

.5 

90.25 

857.375 

3.082 

2.1 18 

60 

3600 

2 1 6000 

7.7460 

3.9149 

.6 

92.16 

884.736 

3  098 

2.125 

61 

3721 

22698 1 

7.8102 

3  9365 

.7 

94.09 

912  673 

3  1  14 

2.133 

62 

3844 

238328 

7.8740 

3  9579 

.8 

96.04 

941  192 

3  130 

2  140 

63 

3969 

250047 

7.9373 

3  9791 

.9 

98.01 

970.299 

3.146 

2.147 

64 

4096 

262 1 44 

8, 

4. 

10 

100 

1000 

3.1623 

2.1544 

65 

4225 

274625 

8.0623 

4.0207 

11 

121 

1331 

3  3166 

2  2240 

66 

4356 

287496 

8.1240 

4  0412 

12 

144 

1728 

3  4641 

2  2894 

67 

4489 

300763 

8.1854 

4  0615 

13 

169 

2197 

3  6056 

2  3513 

68 

4624 

314432 

8.2462 

4  0817 

14 

196 

2744 

3.7417 

2.4101 

69 

4761 

328509 

8.3066 

4.1016 

15 

225 

3375 

3.8730 

2.4662 

70 

4900 

343000 

8.3666 

4.1213 

16 

256 

4096 

4. 

2.5198 

71 

5041 

35791 1 

8.4261 

4.1408 

17 

289 

4913 

4  1231 

2  5713 

72 

5184 

373248 

8  4853 

4  1602 

18 

324 

5832 

4  2426 

2.6207 

73 

5329 

389017 

8.5440 

4. 1 793 

19 

361 

6859 

4.3589 

2.6684 

74 

5476 

405224 

8.6023 

4.1983 

20 

400 

8000 

4.4721 

2.7144 

75 

5625 

421875 

8.6603 

4.2172 

21 

44! 

9261 

4  5826 

2  7589 

76 

5776 

438976 

8.7178 

4.2358 

22 

484 

10648 

4  6904 

2  8020 

77 

5929 

456533 

8.7750 

4.2543 

23 

529 

12167 

4  7958 

2  8439 

78 

6084 

474552 

8.8318 

4  2727 

24 

576 

13824 

4.8990 

2.8845 

79 

6241 

493039 

8.8882 

4.2908 

25 

625 

15625 

5. 

2.9240 

80 

6400 

5 1 2000 

8.9443 

4.3089 

26 

676 

17576 

5  0990 

2  9625 

81 

6561 

531441 

9. 

4.3267 

27 

729 

19683 

5  1962 

3 

82 

6724 

551368 

9.0554 

4  3445 

28 

784 

21952 

5  2915 

3  0366 

83 

6889 

571787 

9  1  104 

4  3621 

29 

841 

24389 

5.3852 

3.0723 

84 

7056 

592704 

9.1652 

4.3795 

30 

900 

27000 

5.4772 

3.1072 

85 

7225 

614125 

9.2195 

4.3968 

31 

961 

29791 

5  5678 

3  1414 

86 

7396 

636056 

9.2736 

4.4140 

32 

1024 

32768 

5  6569 

3  1748 

87 

7569 

658503 

9.3276 

4.4310 

33 

1089 

35937 

5  7446 

3  2075 

88 

7744 

681472 

9.3808 

4.4480 

34 

1 156 

39304 

5.8310 

3.2396 

89 

7921 

704969 

9.4340 

4.4647 

35 

1225 

42875 

5.9161 

3.271  1 

90 

8100 

729000 

9.4868 

4.4814 

36 

1296 

46656 

6 

3  3019 

91 

8281 

753571 

9.5394 

4.4979 

37 

1369 

50653 

6  0828 

3  3322 

92 

8464 

778688 

9.5917 

4.5144 

38 

1444 

54872 

6  1644 

3  3620 

93 

8649 

804357 

9.6437 

4.5307 

39 

1521 

59319 

6.2450 

3.3912 

94 

8836 

830584 

9.6954 

4.5468 

40 

1600 

64000 

6.3246 

3.4200 

95 

9025 

857375 

9.7468 

4.5629 

41 

1681 

68921 

6  4031 

3.4482 

96 

9216 

884736 

9.7980 

4.5789 

42 

1764 

74088 

6.4807 

3.4760 

97 

9409 

912673 

9.8489 

4.5947 

43 

1849 

79507 

6.5574 

3.5034 

98 

9604 

941 192 

9.8995 

4.6104 

44 

1936 

85184 

6.6332 

3.5303 

99  1 

9801 

970299 

9.9499 

4.6261 

280  The  Science  of  Knitting 

CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 


Diam. 

Circura. 

Area. 



1/64 

. 04909 

. uuu 1 V 

1/32 

.09818 

. uuu/ / 

3/64 

14726 

. UU 1 / J 

1/16 

19635 

. UUjU/ 

3/32 

29452 

. uuoyu 

1/8 

39270 

U  1  Li.  J 

5/39 

49087 

u  1  V  1  / 

3/I6 

58905 

02761 

7/32 

68722 

03758 

1/4 

78540 

. U4yuv 

8/32 

88357 

. UoZ  1  i 

5/16 

98175 

.  07670 

11/32 

1 

0799 

. 0928 1 

3/8 

\ 

1781 

. 1 1045 

13/32 

1 

2763 

.  1  IribZ 

7/16 

1 

3744 

.15033 

15/32 

1 

4726 

.17257 

1/2 

1 
1 

5708 

.  iVoj!) 

17/32 

I 

6690 

. 22 1 66 

9/16 

1 

7671 

. Z4o jU 

19/32 

1 
1 

8653 

5/'8 

1 

9635 

.  30680 

21/32 

-y 
L 

0617 

11/16 

2 

1598 

.37122 

23/32 

2 

2580 

.40574 

£. 

3562 

AA  1  7Q 

25/32 

-) 
i. 

4544 

/17QC17 

13/16 

■J 

5525 

^  1  fl/lQ 

3 1  o4y 

27/32 

6507 

HfiQ  1  4 
3  jV  I 

7/8 

■y 
L 

7489 

An  1 1  -> 
OU  1  ^  z 

29/32 

■J 

8471 

04jU4 

15/16 

\ 

9452 

31/32 

0434 

73708 

1. 

% 

J 

1  4  1  0 

/oj4 

1/16 

■1 
J 

3379 

1/8 

% 
J 

5343 

9940 

3/16 

■1 
J 

7306 

1 

1  n7  Q 

1/4 

X 
J 

9270 

1 

2272 

5/16 

4 

1233 

1 

3530 

3/8 

4 

3197 

1 

4849 

7/16 

4 

5160 

I 

0/ jU 

l/i 

4 

7124 

1 

7A7  1 
/O/  1 

9/16 

4 

9087 

1 

Q  1  7  ^ 

y  1  /  J 

5/8 

5 

1051 

2 

u/  jy 

11/16 

5 

3014 

2 

3/4 

5 

4978 

2 

4053 

13/16 

5 

6941 

2 

5802 

7/8 

5 

8905 

2 

7612 

15/16 

6 

0868 

2 

9483 

2. 

6.2832 

3 

1416 

1/16 

6 

4795 

3 

3410 

1/8 

6 

6759 

3 

5466 

3/16 

6 

8722 

3 

7583 

1/4 

7 

0686 

3 

9761 

5/16 

7 

2649 

4 

2000 

23/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 
5/8 

11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 

15/16 

3. 

I/16 
1/8 
3/16 
1/4 
5/16 
3/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 
5/8 
11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 

15/16 
4. 
1/16 
1/8 
3/16 
1/4 
5/16 
3/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 
5/8 

11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 

15/16 
5. 
1/16 
1/8 
3/16 
1/4 
5/16 
3/8 
7/16 
1/2 
9/16 
5/8 

11/16 
3/4 

13/16 
7/8 

15/16 
6. 


Circum. 

Area. 

7  4613 

4  4301 

7^6576 

4^6664 

7.8540 

4.9087 

8.0503 

5.  1572 

8! 2467 

5^41  19 

8^4430 

5^6727 

8 1 6394 

5 '.  9396 

8^8357 

6^2126 

9  0321 

6^4918 

9^2284 

6I7771 

9.4248 

7 . 0686 

9 . 62 1 1 

7! 3662 

9^8175 

7 ' 6699 

io!oi4 

7! 9798 

10! 210 

8 " 2958 

10  407 

8 " 61 79 

10! 603 

8 '.  9462 

io! 799 

9! 2806 

1 0 '.  996 

9 ' 62 1 1 

1 1 ! 192 

9^9678 

1 1 . 388 

10! 321 

1 1 '.  585 

10! 680 

1 1  781 

1 1  045 

1 1 .977 

1 1 !416 

12  174 

1 1  793 

12.370 

12  177 

12. 566 

12^566 

12  763 

12  962 

12.959 

13.364 

13  155 

13. 772 

13  352 

14! 186 

13. 548 

14. 607 

13  744 

15.033 

1 3 . 94 1 

1 5  466 

14  137 

1 5  904 

14  334 

16.349 

14.530 

16  800 

14  726 

17  257 

14  923 

17! 721 

15.119 

18! 190 

15  315 

18.665 

15  512 

19  147 

15. 708 

19  635 

1 5 . 904 

20. 129 

16  101 

20  629 

16.297 

21 !  135 

1 6 . 493 

2 1 . 648 

1 6 . 690 

22  1 66 

16.886 

22^691 

17  082 

23  221 

\i'.n9 

23^758 

17.475 

24.301 

17.671 

24.850 

1 7 . 868 

25.406 

18.064 

25.967 

18.261 

26.535 

18.457 

27. 109 

18.653 

27.688 

18.850 

28.274 

61/8 
1/4 

3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 

7. 

1/8 

3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 
9. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/8 
10. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 

7/8 
11. 

1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 
12. 
1/8 
1/4 
3/8 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 
7/8 

13. 

1/8 
1/4 

3/8 
1/2 


19.242 
19.635 
20.028 
20.420 
20.813 
2 1 . 206 
21 .598 
21 .991 
22.384 
22.776 
23 . 1 69 
23 . 562 
23.955 
24.347 
24.740 
25. 133 
25.525 
25.918 
26.311 
26.704 
27 . 096 
27.489 
27.882 
28.274 
28.667 
29.060 
29.452 
29.845 
30.238 
30.631 
31 .023 
31.416 
3 1 . 809 
32.201 
32.594 
32.987 
33.379 
33.772 
34. 165 
34.558 
34.950 
35.343 
35.736 
36. 128 
36.521 
36.914 
37.306 
37.699 
38.092 
38.485 
38.877 
39.270 
39.663 
40.055 
40.448 
40.841 
41 .233 
41 .626 
42.019 
42.412 


Circuiuforcnces  and 


Areas  of  Circ! 


'les 


281 


Oiam. 

Circum. 

Area. 

Diarn. 

Circum. 

Area. 

Diarn. 

Circum. 

135/8 

42.804 

145.80 

217/8 

OO 

1 

375.83 

30 1/8 

94.640 

712  76 

43. 197 

1 48 . 49 

23. 

1  1 J 

380. 13 

1/4 

95.033 

718.69 

7/8 

43.590 

151 .20 

l^S 

una 
UUo 

384.46 

3/8 

95.426 

724.64 

14. 

43.982 

153.94 

1/4 

69 

onn 

yuu 

388.82 

1/9 

95.819 

730.62 

Vs 

44.375 

156.70 

3/8 

/U 

293 

393.20 

5/8 

96.21 1 

736.62 

1/3 

44.768 

159.48 

l/o 

70 

686 

397.61 

3/4 

96.604 

742.64 

3/8 

45. 160 

162.30 

5/8 

7  1 

/  1 

n7Q 
u/ y 

402.04 

7/8 

96.997 

748.69 

1/2 

45.553 

165. 13 

3/4 

7  1 

Al  1 

4/  1 

406.49 

31. 

97.389 

754.77 

5/8 

45.946 

167.99 

7/8 

7  1 
/  1 

C504 

410.97 

1/8 

97.782 

760.87 

3/4 

46.338 

170.87 

33. 

11 
1  L 

ZO  J 

415.48 

1/4 

98. 175 

766.99 

7/8 

46.731 

173.78 

i/s 

T> 

649 

420.00 

3/8 

98.567 

773. 14 

16. 

47. 124 

176.71 

1/4 

J  J 

C\A'J 

424.56 

1/2 

98.960 

779.31 

1/8 

47.517 

179.67 

3/8 

71 

^JJ 

429. 13 

5/8 

99.353 

785.51 

1/4 

47.909 

182.65 

1/9 

OZ/ 

433.74 

3/4 

99.746 

791  73 

3/8 

48.302 

185.66 

5/8 

74 

220 

438.36 

7/8 

100. 138 

797.98 

1/2 

48.695 

188.69 

3/4 

74 

613 

443.01 

33. 

100.531 

804.25 

5/8 

49.087 

191.75 

7/8 

75 

006 

447.69 

1/8 

100.924 

810.54 

3/4 

49.480 

194.83 

34. 

75 

398 

452.39 

1/4 

101 .316 

816.86 

7/8 

49.873 

197.93 

1/8 

75 

791 

457. 1 1 

3/8 

101 .709 

823.21 

16. 

50.265 

201 .06 

1/4 

76 

184 

461.86 

1/2 

102. 102 

829.58 

1/8 
1/4 

50.658 

204.22 

3/8 

76 

576 

466.64 

5/8 

102.494 

835.97 

5 1 . 05 1 

207.39 

l/o 

76.969 

471 .44 

3/4 

102.887 

842.39 

3/8 

51 .444 

210.60 

5/8 

77 

362 

476.26 

7/8 

103.280 

848.83 

1/2 

51.836 

213.82 

3/4 

77 

754 

481 .  11 

33. 

103.673 

855.30 

5/8 

52.229 

217.08 

7/8 

78 

147 

485.98 

1/8 

104.065 

861 .79 

3/4 

52.622 

220.35 

25. 

78 

540 

490.87 

1/4 

104.458 

868.31 

7/8 

53.014 

223.65 

1/8 

78 

933 

495.79 

3/8 

104.851 

874.85 

17. 

53.407 

226.98 

1/4 
3/8 

79 

325 

500.74 

1/2 

105.243 

881 .41 

1/8 

53.800 

230.33 

79 

718 

505.71 

5/8 

105.636 

888.00 

1/4 

54. 192 

233.71 

1/2 

80 

1  1  1 

510.71 

3/4 

106.029 

894.62 

3/8 

54.585 

237. 10 

5/8 

80 

503 

515.72 

7/8 

106.421 

901 .26 

1/2 

54.978 

240.53 

3/4 

80 

896 

520.77 

34. 

106.814 

907.92 

5/8 

55.371 

243.98 

7/8 

81 

289 

525.84 

1/8 

107.207 

914.61 

3/4 

55.763 

247.45 

36. 

81 

681 

530.93 

1/4 
3/8 

107.600 

921 .32 

7/8 

56. 156 

250.95 

Vs 

82.074 

536.05 

1 07 . 992 

928.06 

18. 

56.549 

254.47 

1/4 
3/8 

82.467 

541 . 19 

1/2 

108.385 

934.82 

1/8 

56.941 

258.02 

82 

860 

546.35 

5/8 

108.778 

941 .61 

1/4 

57.334 

261 .59 

1/2 

83 

252 

551 .55 

3/4 

109. 170 

948.42 

3/8 

57.727 

265. 18 

5/8 

83 

645 

556.76 

7/8 

109.563 

955.25 

1/2 

58. 1 19 

268.80 

3/4 

84 

038 

562.00 

35. 

109.956 

962 . 1 1 

5/8 

58.512 

272.45 

7/8 

84.430 

567.27 

1/8 

110.348 

969 . 00 

3/4 

58.905 

276. 12 

37. 

84.823 

572.56 

1/4 

1 10.741 

975.91 

7/8 

59.298 

279.81 

1/8 

85 

216 

577.87 

3/8 

1 1 1 . 134 

982.84 

19. 

59.690 

283.53 

1/4 

85 

608 

583.21 

1/2 

111.527 

989.80 

1/8 

60.083 

287.27 

3/8 

86.001 

588.57 

5/8 
3/4 

1 1 1 .919 

996.78 

1/4 

60.476 

291 .04 

1/2 

86 

394 

593.96 

1 12.312 

1003.8 

3/8 

60.868 

294.83 

5/8 

86 

786 

599.37 

7/8 

112.705 

1010.8 

1/2 

61  .261 

298.65 

3/4 

87 

179 

604.81 

36. 

1 1 3 . 097 

1017.9 

5/8 

61  .654 

302.49 

7/8 

87 

572 

610.27 

1/8 

1 1 3 . 490 

1 025 . 0 

3/4 

62.046 

306.35 

38. 

87 

965 

615.75 

1/4 

1 13.883 

1032.1 

7/8 

62.439 

310.24 

1/8 

88 

357 

621 .26 

3/8 

1 14.275 

1039.2 

20. 

62.832 

314. 16 

1/4 

88 

750 

626.80 

1/2 

114.668 

1046.3 

1/8 

63.225 

318. 10 

3/8 

89. 143 

632.36 

5/8 

115.061 

1053.5 

1/4 

63.617 

322.06 

1/2 

89.535 

637.94 

3/4 

115.454 

1060.7 

3/8 

64.010 

326.05 

5/8 

89 

928 

643.55 

7/8 

1 15.846 

1068.0 

1/2 

64.403 

330.06 

3/4 

90 

321 

649. 18 

37. 

1 16.239 

1075.2 

5/8 

64.795 

334. 10 

7/8 

90.713 

654.84 

1/8 

1 16.632 

1082.5 

3/4 

65. 188 

338. 16 

39. 

91 

106 

660.52 

1/4 

1 1 7 . 024 

1089.8 

7/8 

65.581 

342.25 

1/8 

91 

499 

666.23 

3/8 

117.417 

1097.1 

31. 

65.973 

346.36 

1/4 
3/8 

91 

892 

671.96 

1/2 

117.810 

1 104.5 

1/8 

66.366 

350.50 

92 

284 

677.71 

5/8 

1 18.202 

1111.8 

1/4 

66. 759 

354. 66 

1  /o 

92 

677 

683 . 49 

3/4 

118. 596 

1 1 19.2 

3/8 

6/. 152 

358.84 

5/8 

93 

070 

689.30 

7/8 

1 18.988 

1126.7 

1/2 

67.544 

363.05 

3/4 

93 

462 

695. 13 

38. 

1 19.381 

1 134. 1 

5/8 

67.937' 

367.28 

7/8 

93 

855 

700.98 

1/8 

1 19.773 

1 141 .6 

3/4 

68.330 

371 .54 

30. 

94 

248 

706 . 86 

1/4 

120. 166 

1 149.  1 

282  The  Science  of  Knitting 


NATURAL  TRIGONOMETRICAL  FUNCTIONS. 


\f 
M. 

Sine. 

Co- 
vers. 

Ccec. 

Tang. 

Cotan. 

Se- 
cant. 

Ver. 
Sin. 

0 

Q 

0 

.00000  1 .0000 

Infinite 

.00000  Infinite 

1.0000 

.00000 

1.0000 

90 

15 

.00436 

.99564  229.18 

.00436  229.18 

1.00001.00001 

.99999 

45 

30 

.00873 

.99127 

1 14.59 

.00373  114.59 

1 .0000 

.00004 

99996 

30 

45 

.01 309 

.98691 

76.397 

.01 309 

76.390 

1.0001 

.00009 

.99991 

15 

0 

.01  745 

.98255 

57.299 

.01  745 

57.290 

1.0001;. 000 15 

.99985 

89 

0 

15 

.02181 

.97819 

45.840 

.02182 

45.829 

1.00021.00024 

.99976 

45 

30 

.02618 

.97382 

38.202 

.02618 

38.188 

1.0003  .00034 

.99966 

30 

45 

.03054 

.96946 

32.746 

.03055 

32.730 

1.0005  .00047 

.99953 

15 

2 

0 

.03490 

.96510 

28.654 

.03492 

28.636 

1.0006  .00061 

99939 

88 

0 

15 

.03926 

.96074 

25.471 

.03929 

25.452 

1.0008  .00077 

.99923 

45 

30 

.04362 

.95638 

22.926 

.04366 

22.904 

1.0009  .00095 

.99905 

30 

45 

.04798 

.95202 

20.843 

.04803 

20.819 

1.001  1 

.001 15 

.99885 

15 

3 

0 

.05234 

.94766 

19.107 

.05241 

19.081 

1.00141.00137 

.99863 

87 

0 

15 

.05669 

.94331 

17.639 

.05678 

17.61 1 

1.0016  .00161 

.99839 

45 

30 

.06105 

.93895 

16.380 

.061 16 

16.350 

1.00191.00187 

.99813 

30 

45 

.06540 

.93460 

15.290 

.06554 

15.257 

1.0021 

.00214 

.99786 

15 

4 

0 

.06976 

.93024 

14.336 

.06993 

14.301 

1.0024  .00244 

99  756 

86 

0 

15 

.0741 1 

.92589 

13.494 

.07431 

13.457 

1.0028  .00275 

.99725 

45 

30 

.07846 

.92154 

12.745 

.07870 

12.706 

1.0031 

.00308 

99692 

30 

45 

.08281 

.91719 

12.076 

.08309 

12.035 

1.0034 

.00343 

.99656 

15 

5 

0 

.08716 

.91284 

1  1.474 

.08749 

1 1.430 

1.0038  .00381 

.99619 

85 

0 

15 

.091  50 

.90850 

10.929 

.09189 

10.883 

1.0042 

.00420 

.99580 

45 

30 

.09585 

.9041 5 

10.433 

.09629 

10.385 

1.0046 

.00460 

.99540 

30 

45 

.  1 00 1 9 

.89981 

9.9812 

. 1 0069 

9.93  IC 

1 .005  1 

.00503 

.99497 

15 

6 

0 

.10453 

.89547 

9.5668 

.10510 

9.5144 

1.0055  .00548 

99452 

84 

0 

15 

.  1 0887 

.891 13 

9.1855 

.10952 

9.1309 

1.0060  .00594 

.99406 

45 

30 

.1 1320 

.88680 

8.8337 

.11393 

8.7769 

1.0065  .00643 

.99357 

30 

45 

.  1 1 754 

.88246 

8.5079 

.11836 

8.449C 

1.0070  .00693 

.99307 

15 

7 

0 

.12187 

.87813 

8.2055 

.12278 

8.1443 

1.0075  .00745 

.99255 

83 

0 

15 

.  1 2620 

.87380 

7.9240 

.12722 

7.8606 

1.0081 

.00800 

.99200 

45 

30 

.  1 3053 

.86947 

7.6613 

.13165 

7.5958 

1.0086  .00856 

.99144 

30 

45 

.  1 3485 

.86515 

7.4156 

.13609 

7.3479 

1.0092  .00913 

.99086 

15 

8 

0 

.1391  7 

.86083 

7.1853 

.14054 

7.1 1 5^^ 

1 .0098 

.00973 

.99027 

82 

0 

15 

.  1 4349 

.8565 1 

6.9690 

.14499 

6.8969 

1.0105 

.01035 

.98965 

45 

30 

. 1 478 1 

.85219 

6.7655 

.14945 

6.6912 

1.01 11 

.01098 

.98902 

30 

45 

.  1 52 1 2 

.84788 

6.5736 

.15391 

6.4971 

1.01  18'.01  164 

.98836 

15 

9 

0 

.  1 5643 

.84357 

6.3924  .15838 

6.3138 

1.0125 

.01231 

.98769 

81 

0 

15 

.  1 6074 

.83926 

6.2211 

.16286 

6.1402 

1.0132'.01300 

.98700 

45 

30 

.  1  6DU!) 

.83495 

6.05891.16734 

5.9755 

1.0139 

.01371 

.98629 

30 

45 

.  1 6935 

.83065 

5.9049'. 17183 

5.8197 

1.0147 

.01444 

.98556 

15 

10 

0 

.  1  7.J6!? 

.82635 

5.7588 

.17633 

5.6713 

1.0154 

.01519 

.98481 

80 

0 

15 

.  1 7794 

.82206 

5.6198 

.18083 

5.5301 

1.0162  .01596 

.98404 

45 

30 

.  1 8224 

.81 776 

5.4874 

.18534 

5.3955 

1.0170  .01675 

.98325 

30 

45 

.  1 8652 

.81348 

5.3612 

.  1 8986 

5.2672 

1.0179  .01755 

.98245 

15 

11 

0 

.  1 908 1 

.80919 

5.2408  .19438 

5.1446 

1.0187 

.01837 

.98163 

79 

0 

15 

.  1 9509 

.80491 

5.1258 

.19891 

5.0273 

1.0196  .01921 

.98079 

45 

30 

.  1 9937 

.80063 

5.0158 

.20345 

4.9152 

1.0205  .02008 

.97992 

30 

45 

.20364 

.79636 

4.9106  .20800 

4.8077 

1.0214 

.02095 

.97905 

15 

12 

0 

.20791 

.79209 

4.8097 

.21256 

4.7046 

1.0223  .02185 

.97815 

78 

0 

15 

0 1  ">  I  fi 
.Z  \  ZiO 

.78782 

4.7130 

.21712 

'T.OU  J  / 

1.0233  .02277 

.97723 

45 

30 

.2 1 644 

78356 

4.6202 

.22169 

4.5107 

1.0243 

.02370 

.97630 

30 

45 

22070 

177930 

4.5311 

.22628 

4.4194 

1.0253 

.02466 

.97534 

15 

13 

0 

;22495 

.77505 

4.4454 

,23087 

4.3315 

1.0263  .02563 

.97437 

4  7 

0 

15 

.22920 

.77080 

4.3630 

.23547 

4.2468 

1.0273 

.02662 

.97338 

45 

30 

.23345 

.76655 

4.2837 

.24008 

4.1653 

1.0284. 02763 

.97237 

30 

45 

.23769 

.76231 

4.2072i. 24470 

4.0867 

1.0295  .02866 

.97134 

15 

14 

0 

24192 

.75808 

4.1336 

.24933 

4.0108 

1.0306 

.02970 

.97030 

76 

0 

1 3 

.24615 

.75385 

4.0625 

.25397 

3.9375 

1.0317 

.03077 

45 

30 

.25038 

.74962 

3.9939 

.25862 

3.8667 

1.0329 

.03185 

.96815 

30 

45 

.25460 

.74540 

3.9277 

.26328 

3.7983 

1.0341 

.03295 

.96705 

15 

15 

0 

.25882 

.741 18 

3.8637 

.26795 

3.7320 

1.0353 

03407 

.96593 

75 

0 

Co- 
sine. 

Ver. 
Sin. 

Secant. 

Cjtan 

Tang. 

Cosec. 

Co- 
vers. 

Sine. 

0 

M. 

From  Ho"  to  90^  read  from  bottom  of  table  upwards. 


Natural  Trigonometrical  Functions 


283 


• 

M. 

Sine. 

Co- 
Vers. 

Cosec 

Tang 

Cotan 

Secant 

Ver. 
bin. 

Cosine. 

15" 

0 

.25882 

.741 18 

3.8637 

.26795 

3.7320 

1.0353 

.03407 

.96593 

75 

0 

15 

.26303 

.73697 

3.8018 

.27263 

3.6680 

1.0365 

.03521 

.96479 

45 

30 

.26724 

.73276 

3.7420 

.27732 

3.6059 

1.0377 

.03637 

.96363 

30 

45 

.27144 

.72856 

3.6840 

.28203 

3.5457 

1.0390 

.03754 

.96246 

74 

15 

16 

0 

.27564 

.72436 

3.6280 

.28674 

3.4874 

1 .0403 

.03874 

.96126 

0 

15 

.27983 

.72017 

3.5736 

.29147 

3.4308 

1.0416 

.03995 

.96005 

45 

30 

.28402 

.71598 

3.5209 

.29621 

3.3759 

1 .0429 

.041 18 

.95882 

30 

45 

.28820 

.71 180 

3.4699 

.30096 

3.3226 

1 .0443 

.04243 

.95751 

15 

17 

0 

.29237 

.70763 

3.4203 

.30573 

3.2709 

1.0457 

.04370 

.95630 

73 

0 

15 

.29654 

.70346 

3.3722 

.31051 

3.2205 

1.0471 

.04498 

.95502 

45 

30 

.30070 

.69929 

3.3255 

.31530 

3.1716 

1.0485 

.04628 

.95372 

30 

45 

.30486 

.69514 

3.2801 

.32010 

3.1240 

1 .0500 

.04760 

.95240 

15 

18 

0 

.30902 

.69098 

3.2361 

.32492 

3.0777 

1.0515 

.04894 

.95106 

73 

0 

15 

.31316 

.68684 

3.1932 

.32975 

3.0326 

1.0530 

.05030 

.94970 

45 

30 

.31730 

.68270 

3.1515 

.33459 

2.9887 

1.0545 

.05168 

.94832 

30 

45 

.32144 

.67856 

3.1 1  10 

.33945 

2.9459 

1.0560 

.05307 

.94693 

15 

19 

0 

.32557 

.67443 

3.0715 

.34433 

2.9042 

1.0576 

.05448 

.94552 

71 

0 

15 

.32969 

.67031 

3.0331 

.34921 

2.8636 

1.0592 

.05591 

.94409 

45 

30 

.33381 

.66619 

2.9957 

.35412 

2.8239 

1.0608 

.05736 

.94264 

30 

45 

.33792 

.66208 

2.9593 

.35904 

2.7852 

1 .0625 

.05882 

.941 18 

15 

20 

0 

.34202 

.65798 

2.9238 

.36397 

2.7475 

1 .0642 

.0603 1 

.93969 

70 

0 

15 

.34612 

.65388 

2.8892 

.36892 

2.7106 

1 .0659 

.06181 

.93819 

45 

30 

.35021 

.64979 

2.8554 

.37388 

2.6746 

1.0676 

.06333 

.93667 

30 

45 

.35429 

.64571 

2.8225 

.37887 

2.6395 

1 .0694 

.06486 

.93514 

15 

21 

0 

.35837 

.64163 

2.7904 

.38386 

2.6051 

1.071  1 

.06642 

.93358 

69 

0 

15 

.36244 

.63756 

2.7591 

.38888 

2.5715 

1.0729 

.06799 

.93201 

45 

30 

.36650 

.63350 

2.7285 

.39391 

2.5386 

1.0743 

.06958 

.93042 

30 

45 

.37056 

.62944 

2.6986 

.39896 

2.5065 

1 .0766 

.071 19 

.92881 

15 

92 

0 

.37461 

.62539 

2.6695 

.40403 

2.4751 

1.0785 

.07282 

.92718 

68 

0 

15 

.37865 

.62135 

2.6410 

.4091 1 

2.4443 

1 .0804 

.07446 

.92554 

45 

30 

.38268 

.61732 

2.6131 

.41421 

2.4142 

1.0824 

.07612 

.92388 

30 

45 

.38671 

.61329 

2.5859 

.41933 

2.3847 

1 .0844 

.07780 

.92220 

15 

23 

0 

.39073 

.60927 

2.5593 

.42447 

2.3559 

1 .0864 

.07950 

.92050 

67 

0 

15 

.39474 

.60526 

2.5333 

.42963 

2.3276 

1 .0884 

.08121 

.91879 

45 

30 

.39875 

.60125 

2.5078 

.43481 

2.2998 

1 .0904 

.08294 

.91706 

30 

45 

.40275 

.59725 

2.4829 

.44001 

2.2727 

1 .0925 

.08469 

.91531 

15 

94 

0 

.40674 

.59326 

2.4586 

.44523 

2.2460 

1 .0946 

.08645 

.91355 

66 

0 

15 

.41072 

.58928 

2.4348 

.45047 

2.2199 

1 .0968 

.08824 

.91176 

45 

30 

.41469 

.58531 

2.41 14 

.45573 

2.1943 

1.0989 

.09004 

.90996 

30 

45 

.41866 

.58134 

2.3886 

.46101 

2.1692 

1.101 1 

.09186 

.90814 

15 

125 

0 

.42262 

.57738 

2.3662 

.4663 1 

2.1445 

1.1034 

.09369 

.90631 

65 

0 

15 

.42657 

.57343 

2.3443 

.47163 

2.1203 

1.1056 

.09554 

.90446 

45 

30 

.43051 

.56949 

2.3228 

.47697 

2.0965 

!.1079 

.09741 

.90259 

30 

45 

.43445 

.56555 

2.3018 

.48234 

2.0732 

1.1102 

.09930 

.90070 

15 

26 

0 

.43837 

.56163 

2.2812 

.48773 

2.0503 

1.1126 

.10121 

.89879 

64 

0 

15 

.44229 

.55771 

2.2610 

.49314 

2.0278 

1.1150 

.10313 

.89687 

45 

30 

.44620 

.55380 

2.2412 

.49858 

2.0057 

1.1174 

.10507 

.89493 

30 

45 

.45010 

.54990 

2.2217 

.50404 

1 .9840 

1.1198 

.10702 

.89298 

15 

27 

0 

.45399 

.54601 

2.2027 

.50952 

1 .9626 

1.1223 

.10899 

.89101 

63 

0 

15 

.45787 

.54213 

2.1840 

.51503 

1.9416 

1.1248 

.1 1098 

88902 

45 

30 

.46175 

.53825 

2.1657 

.52057 

1.9210 

1.1274 

.1 1299 

.88701 

30 

45 

.46561 

.53439 

2.1477 

.52612 

1 .9007 

1.1300 

.1 1501 

.88499 

15 

28 

0 

.46947 

.53053 

2.1300 

.53171 

1 .8807 

1.1326 

.1 1705 

.88295 

62 

0 

15 

.47332 

.52668 

2.1 127 

.53732 

1.861 1 

1.1352 

.1 191 1 

.88089 

45 

30 

.47716 

.52284 

2.0957 

.54295 

1.8418 

1.1379 

.121 18 

.87882 

30 

45 

.48099 

.51901 

2.0790 

1 .8228 

1 . 1 406 

1  "yxT? 
.  1  Lii.1 

.O/O/J 

29 

0 

.48481 

.51519 

2.0627 

.55431 

1 .8040 

1.1433 

.12538 

.87462 

61 

0 

15 

.48862 

.51138 

2.0466 

.56003 

1.7856 

1.1461 

.12750 

.87250 

45 

30 

.49242 

.50758 

2.0308 

.56577 

1.7675 

1.1490 

.12964 

.87036 

30 

45 

.49622 

.50378 

2.0152 

.57155 

1.7496 

1.1518 

.13180 

.86820 

15 

30 

0 

.50000 

.50000 

2.0000 

.57735 

1.7320 

1.1547 

.13397 

.86603 

60 

0 

Co- 
sine. 

Ver. 
Sin. 

Se- 
cant. 

Co  tan. 

Tang. 

Cosec. 

Co- 
vers. 

Sine. 

M. 

From  60"  to  75*  read  from  bottom  of  table  upwards. 


284 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


IVl. 

bine. 

Co- 
vers. 

Liosec. 

iang. 

Pr«  +  ci  n 

V./0  lan. 

oecant. 

Ver. 
Sin. 

LyQsine 

0 

.50000 

.50000 

2.0000 

.57735 

1.7320 

1.1547 

.13397 

.86603 

60 

0 

15 

.50377 

.49623 

1.9850 

.58318 

1.7147 

1.1576 

.13616 

.86^84 

45 

30 

.50754 

.49246 

1 .9703 

.58904 

1 .6977 

1 . 1 606 

.13837 

.86163 

30 

43 

.51 129 

.48871 

1 .9558 

.59494 

1 .6808 

1.1636 

.14059 

.85941 

15 

81 

0 

.51504 

.48496 

1.9416 

.60086 

1 .6643 

1 . 1 666 

.14283 

.85717 

59 

0 

15 

.51877 

.48123 

1.9276 

.60681 

1 .6479 

1.1697 

.14509 

.85491 

45 

30 

.52250 

.47750 

1.9139 

.61280 

1.6319 

1.1728 

.14736 

.85264 

30 

45 

.52621 

.47379 

1 .9004 

.61882 

1 .6160 

1 . 1 760 

.  1 4965 

.85035 

15 

S2 

0 

.52992 

.47008 

1.8871 

.62487 

1 .6003 

1 . 1 792 

.15195 

.84805 

58 

0 

15 

.53361 

.46639 

1.8740 

.63095 

1 .5849 

1.1824 

.15427 

.84573 

45 

30 

.53730 

.46270 

1.8612 

.63707 

1 .5697 

1 .1857 

.15661 

.84339 

30 

45 

.54097 

.45903 

1 .8485 

.64322 

1 .5547 

1 . 1 890 

.  1 5896 

.84104 

15 

33 

0 

.54464 

.45536 

1 .8361 

.64941 

1 .5399 

1 .1924 

.16133 

.83867 

57 

0 

15 

.54829 

.45171 

1 .8238 

.65563 

1 .5253 

1.1958 

.16371 

.83629 

45 

30 

.55194 

.44806 

1 .81 18 

.66188 

1 . 5 1 08 

1 . 1 992 

.1661 1 

.83389 

30 

45 

.55557 

.44443 

1.7999 

.66818 

1 .4966 

1 .2027 

.16853 

.83147 

15 

34 

0 

.55919 

.44081 

1 .7883 

.67451 

1 .4826 

1 .2062 

.  1 7096 

.82904 

56 

0 

15 

.56280 

.43720 

1 .7768 

.68087 

1 .4687 

1 .2098 

.17341 

.82659 

45 

30 

.56641 

.43359 

1 .7655 

.68728 

1 .4550 

1 .2134 

.17587 

.82413 

30 

45 

.57000 

.43000 

1.7544 

.69372 

1.4415 

1.2171 

.17835 

.82165 

15 

35 

0 

.57358 

.42642 

1 .7434 

.70021 

1 .4281 

1 .2208 

.18085 

.81915 

55 

0 

15 

.57715 

.42285 

1.7327 

.70673 

1.4150 

1 .2245 

.18336 

.81664 

45 

30 

.58070 

.41930 

1 .7220 

.71329 

1 .4019 

1.2283 

.18588 

.81412 

30 

45 

.58425 

.41575 

1.71 16 

.71990 

1.3891 

1.2322 

.18843 

.81  157 

15 

36 

0 

.58779 

.41221 

1 .7013 

.72654 

1 .3764 

1 .2361 

.  1 9098 

.80902 

54 

0 

15 

.59131 

.40869 

1.6912 

.73323 

1 .3638 

1 .2400 

.19356 

.80644 

45 

30 

.59482 

.40518 

1.6812 

.73996 

1 .3514 

1 .2440 

.19614 

.80386 

30 

45 

.59832 

.40168 

1.6713 

.74673 

1 .3392 

1 .2480 

.19875 

.80125 

15 

37 

0 

.60181 

.39819 

1.6616 

.75355 

1.3270 

1 .2521 

.20136 

.79864 

53 

0 

15 

.60529 

.39471 

1.6521 

.76042 

1.3151 

1 .2563 

.20400 

.79600 

45 

30 

.60876 

.39124 

1.6427 

.76733 

1.3032 

1.2605 

.20665 

.79335 

30 

45 

.61222 

.38778 

1.6334 

.77428 

1 .291 5 

1 .2647 

.20931 

.79069 

15 

38 

0 

.61566 

.38434 

1 .6243 

.78129 

1.2799 

1 .2690 

.21 199 

.78801 

52 

0 

15 

.61909 

.38091 

1.6153 

.78834 

1 .2685 

1.2734 

.2 1 468 

.78532 

45 

30 

.62251 

.37749 

1 .6064 

.79543 

1 .2572 

1 .2778 

.21739 

.78261 

30 

45 

.62592 

.37408 

1.5976 

.80258 

1 .2460 

1  2822 

.22012 

.77988 

15 

39 

0 

.62932 

.37068 

1.5890 

.80978 

1 .2349 

1 .2868 

.22285 

.77715 

51 

0 

15 

.63271 

.36729 

1.5805 

.81703 

1.2239 

1 .2913 

.22561 

.77439 

45 

30 

.63608 

.36392 

1.5721 

.82434 

1 .2131 

1 .2960 

.22838 

.77162 

30 

45 

.63944 

.36056 

1.5639 

.83 1 69 

1 .2024 

1 .3007 

.231 16 

.76884 

15 

40 

0 

.64279 

.35721 

1.5557 

.83910 

1.1918 

1 .3054 

.23396 

.76604 

50 

0 

15 

.64612 

.35388 

1 .5477 

.84656 

1.1812 

1.3102 

.23677 

.76323 

45 

30 

.64945 

.35055 

1.5398 

.85408 

1.1708 

1.3151 

.23959 

.76041 

30 

45 

.65276 

.34724 

1.5320 

.86165 

1 . 1 606 

1 .3200 

.24244 

.75756 

15 

41 

0 

.65606 

.34394 

1.5242 

.86929 

1.1504 

1.3250 

.24529 

.75471 

49 

0 

15 

.65935 

.34065 

1  5166 

.87698 

1.1403 

1 .3301 

.24816 

.75184 

45 

30 

.66262 

.33738 

1.5092 

.88472 

1.1303 

1.3352 

.25104 

.74896 

30 

45 

.66588 

.33412 

1.5018 

.89253 

1 .1204 

1.3404 

.25394 

.74606 

15 

42 

0 

.66913 

.33087 

1.4945 

.90040 

1 . 1 1 06 

1.3456 

.25686 

.74314 

48 

0 

15 

.67237 

.32763 

1.4873 

.90834 

1 . 1 009 

1.3509 

.25978 

.74022 

45 

30 

.67559 

.32441 

1 .4802 

.91633 

1.0913 

1.3563 

.26272 

.73728 

30 

45 

.67880 

.32120 

1.4732 

.92439 

1.0818 

1.3618 

.26568 

.73432 

15 

43 

0 

.68200 

.31800 

1 .4663 

.93251 

1 .0724 

1.3673 

.26865 

.73135 

47 

0 

15 

.68518 

.31482 

1.4595 

.9407 1 

1 .0630 

1 .3729 

.27163 

.72837 

45 

30 

.68835 

.31 165 

1 .4527 

.94896 

1.0538 

1.3786 

.27463 

.72537 

30 

45 

691 5 1 

30849 

r7j  1 ZV 

1  .U'f^O 

Tllf^A 
.LI /O't 

13 

44 

0 

'69466 

30534 

1.4396 

.96569 

1.0355 

1 .3902 

.28066 

.71934 

46 

0 

15 

.69779 

.30221 

1.4331 

.97416 

1 .0265 

1.3961 

.28370 

.71630 

45 

30 

.70091 

.29909 

1.4267 

.98270 

1.0176 

1 .4020 

.28675 

.71325 

30 

45 

.70401 

.29599 

1 .4204 

.99131 

1 .0088 

1.4081 

.28981 

.71019 

15 

45 

0 

.70711 

.29289 

1.4142 

1 .0000 

1 .0000 

1.4142 

.29289 

.70711 

45 

0 

Cosine 

Ver. 
Sin. 

Se- 
cant. 

Cotan. 

Tang. 

Cosec. 

Co- 
ver.-. 

Sine. 

« 

M. 

From  45"  to  60°  read  from  bottom  of  table  upwards. 


Tables  of  Time 


2g5 


Table  of  Time  in  Different  Units 


Counting  9  hours  per  day  and  300  days  per  year 


Second 

All  nut  6 

Hour 

Day 

Week 

Year  

9,720,000 

162,000 

2700 

300 

50 

12 

810,000 

13,500 

225 

25 

Week  

194,400 

3,240 

54 

6 

Day  

32,400 

540 

9 

3.600 

60 

Minute  

60 

Table  of  Time  in  Different  Units 

Counting  10  hours  per  day,  and  300  days  per  year 


Second 

Minute 

Hour 

Day 

Week 

Month 

Year  

10,800,000 

180,000 

3000 

300 

50 

12 

Month  

900,000 

15,000 

250 

25 

Week  

216,000 

3.600 

60 

6 

Day  

36,000 

600 

10 

Hour  

3.600 

60 

60 

286 


The  Science  of  Iviiitting 
MENSURATION 


PLANE  SURFACES 
Quadrilateral.  —  A  four-sided  figure. 

Parallelogram.  —  A  quadrilateral  with  opposite  sides  parallel. 

Varieties.  —  Square:  four  sides  equal,  all  angles  right  angles. 
Rectangle:  opposite  sides  equal,  all  angles  right  angles.  Rhom- 
bus: four  sides  equal,  opposite  angles  equal,  angles  not  right 
angles.  Rhomboid:  opposite  sides  equal,  opposite  angles  equal, 
angles  not  right  angles. 

Trapezium.  —  A  quadrilateral  with  unequal  sides. 

Trapezoid.  —  A  quadrilateral  with  only  one  pair  of  opposite 
sides  parallel. 

Diagonal  of  a  square  =  V2  X  side^  =  1.4142  X  side.  

Diag.  of  a  rectangle  =  ^''^sum  of  squares  of  two  adjacent  sides. 

Area  of  any  parallelogram  =  base  X  altitude. 

Area  of  rhombus  or  rhomboid  =  product  of  two  adjacent  sides 
X  sine  of  angle  included  between  them. 

Area  of  a  trapezoid  =  product  of  half  the  sum  of  the  two 
parallel  sides  by  the  perpendicular  distance  between  them. 

To  find  the  area  of  any  quadrilateral  figure.  —  Divide  the 
quadrilateral  into  two  triangles;  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the 
triangles  is  the  area. 

Or,  multiply  half  the  product  of  the  two  diagonals  by  the  sine 
of  the  angle  at  their  intersection. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  quadrilateral  which  may  be  inscribed  in  a 
circle.  —  From  half  the  sum  of  the  four  sides  subtract  each  side 
severally;  multiply  the  four  remainders  together;  the  square  root 
of  the  product  is  the  area. 

Triangle.  —  A  three-sided  plane  figure. 

Varieties.  —  Right-angled,  having  one  right  angle;  obtuse- 
angled,  having  one  obtuse  angle;  isosceles,  having  two  equal 
angles  and  two  equal  sides;  equilateral,  having  three  equal  sides 
and  equal  angles. 

The  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  every  triangle  =  180  degrees. 

The  sum  of  the  two  acute  angles  of  a  right-angled  triangle  = 
90  degrees. 

Hj-pothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  the  side  opposite  the 
right  angle,  =  Vsum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides.  If 


Plane  Surfaces 


287 


I  a  and  b  are  the  two  sides  and  c  the  hypotheniise,  =  +  6-; 
l  a  =  Vc2  -  62  =  V(c  +  6)  (c  -  6). 

If  the  two  sides  are  equal,  side  =  hyp  1.4142;  or  hyp  X 
.7071. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle : 

Rule  1.  Multiply  the  base  by  half  the  altitude. 
Rule  2.  Multiply  half  the  product  of  two  sides  by  the  sine  of 
j  the  included  angle. 

'  Rule  3.  From  half  the  sum  of  the  three  sides  subtract  each 
;  side  severally;  multiply  together  the  half  sum  and  the  three 
j  remainders,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  product. 
'  The  area  of  an  equilateral  triangle  is  equal  to  one-fourth  the 
square  of  one  of  its  sides  multiplied  by  the  square  root  of  3, 
V3 

=      — ,  a  being  the  side;  or      X  0.433013. 

Area  of  a  triangle  given,  to  find  base:  Base  =  twice  area 
perpendicular  height. 

Area  of  a  triangle  given,  to  find  height:  Height  =  twice 
area  ^  base. 

Two  sides  and  base  given,  to  find  perpendicular  height  (in  a 
triangle  in  which  both  of  the  angles  at  the  base  are  acute). 

Rule.  —  As  the  base  is  to  the  sum  of  the  sides,  so  is  the  differ- 
ence of  the  sides  to  the  difference  of  the  divisions  of  the  base 
made  by  drawing  the  perpendicular.  Half  this  difference  being 
added  to  or  subtracted  from  half  the  base  will  give  the  two 
divisions  thereof.  As  each  side  and  its  opposite  division  of  the 
base  constitutes  a  right-angled  triangle,  the  perpendicular  is 
;  ascertained  by  the  rule:  Perpendicular  =  v hyp^  —  base^. 

Areas  of  similar  figures  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 
'  respective  linear  dimensions.    If  the  area  of  an  equilateral 
triangle  of  side  =  1  is  0.433013  and  its  height  0.86603,  what  is 
1  the  area  of  a  similar  triangle  whose  height  =  1?  0.86603^: 
I  12  ::  0.433013  :  0.57735,  Ans. 

;  Polygon.  —  A  plane  figure  having  three  or  more  sides.  Reg- 
ular or  irregular,  according  as  the  sides  or  angles  are  equal  or 
unequal.    Polygons  are  named  from  the  number  of  their  sides 

1  and  angles. 

To  find  the  area  of  an  irregular  polygon.  —  Draw  diagonals 
dividing  the  polygon  into  triangles,  and  find  the  sum  of  the  areas 
of  these  triangles. 


288 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


Horse  Power  Transmitted  by  Cold-rolled  Steel  Shafting  at  Different  Speeds 
as  Prime  Movers  or  Head  Shafts  Carrying  Main  Driving  Pulley  or  Gear, 
well  Supported  by  Bearings. 

Formula  H.P.  =  d^R  ^  100. 


Revolutions  per  minute. 

Revolutions  per  minute. 

Dia. 

100 

200 

300 

400 

500 

Dia. 

100 

200 

300 

400 

500 

U 

3.4 

6.7 

10.1 

13.5 

16.9 

2s 

24 

48 

72 

95 

119 

1  9 

Its 

3.8 

7.6 

11 .4 

15.2 

19.0 

nlS 
2lB 

25 

51 

76 

101 

127 

If 

4.3 

8.6 

12.8 

17.1 

21.0 

3 

27 

54 

81 

108 

135 

ill 

4.8 

9.6 

14.4 

19.2 

24.0 

3i 

31 

61 

91 

122 

152 

If 

5.4 

10.7 

16.1 

21 .0 

27.0 

o  3 

3is 

32 

65 

97 

129 

162 

lii 

5.9 

11.9 

17.8 

24.0 

30.0 

34 

69 

103 

137 

172 

U 

6.6 

13.1 

19.7 

26.0 

33.0 

3| 

38 

77 

115 

154 

192 

lit 

7.3 

14.5 

22.0 

29.0 

36.0 

3/s 

41 

81 

122 

162 

203 

2 

8.0 

16.0 

24.0 

32.0 

40.0 

Zi\ 

43 

86 

128 

171 

214 

2^ 

8.8 

17.6 

26.0 

35.0 

44.0 

45 

90 

136 

180 

226 

2| 

9.6 

19.2 

29.0 

38.0 

48.0 

3f 

48 

95 

143 

190 

238 

2t\ 

10.5 

21.0 

31.0 

42.0 

52.0 

oil 

50 

100 

150 

200 

251 

2i 

11.4 

23.0 

34.0 

45.0 

57.0 

3f 

55 

105 

158 

211 

264 

2A 

12.4 

25.0 

37.0 

49.0 

62.0 

3| 

58 

116 

174 

233 

291 

2f 

13.4 

27.0 

40.0 

54.0 

67.0 

3Pb 

61 

122 

183 

244 

305 

2/5 

14.5 

29.0 

43.0 

58.0 

72.0 

4 

64 

128 

192 

256 

320 

2i 

15.6 

31.0 

47.0 

62.0 

78.0 

74 

147 

221 

294 

367 

2j\ 

16.8 

34.0 

50.0 

67.0 

84.0 

77 

154 

230 

307 

383 

21 

18.1 

36.0 

54.0 

72.0 

90.0 

4/b 

88 

175 

263 

350 

438 

2H 

19.4 

39.0 

58.0 

77.0 

97.0 

4 

91 

182 

273 

365 

456 

2| 

21.0 

41.0 

62.0 

83.0 

104.0 

41 

107 

214 

322 

429 

537 

2ii 

22.0 

44.0 

67.0 

89.0 

111.0 

5 

125 

250 

375 

500 

625 

For  H.P.  transmitted  by  turned  steel  shafts,  as  prime  movers, 
etc.,  multiply  the  figures  by  0.8. 

For  shafts,  as  second  movers  or  line  /  Cold-rolled  Turned 
shafts,  bearings  8  feet  apart,  multiply  by      ^     1-43  l.U 

For  simply  transmitting  power,  short 
countershafts,  etc.,  bearings  not  over  8  feet 
apart,  multiply  by  2  2.50 

The  horse  power  is  directly  proportional  to  the  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute. 

Speed  of  Shafting.  — 

Machine  shops    120  to  240 

Wood-working   250  to  300 

Cotton  and  woolen  mills    300  to  400 


Plane  Surfaces 


289 


Horse  Power  of  a  Leather  Belt  One  Inch  Wide.  (Nagle.) 

Formula:  H.P.  =  CVtw{S  -  0.012  V^)  -r  550. 
For  /  =  0.40,  a  =  180  degrees,  C  =  0.715,  m;  =  1. 


Laced  Belts,  S  =  275. 


>  ^ 


Thickness  in  inches  =  t.. 


10  10.51 
15 


0.75  0.88 


1.00 
1.23 
1.47 
1 
1 

2.09 


90  2 


2.44 


0.59  0.63 


1.17 
1.43 
1.72 
1.97 
22 
2.45 


2.27  2.65 


2.84 


2.58  3.01 


2.71 
2.81 

2.89  3.37  3 


2.97,3.47 
2.97j3.47 


1.00 
1.32 
1.61 
1.93 
2.22 
2.49 


3.16  3.55  4.14  4.74 
4.91 
5.05 

2.94  3.43  3.86  4.50  5.15 
5.20 


3.27  3.68  4.29 
.79  4.42 


.88  2 


.90  3 


2.75  3.21 
2.98  3.48 


3.90  4.55 
3.90  4.55 


0.73  0.84 
1.16 
1.54 
1. 

2.25 
2.59 
2 


58  3 


1.32 
1.75 
.16 
2. 

2 

.32 
3.67 
3.98 


96  3 


3.19  3.72  4.26  5.32 
3.38  3.95  4.51 


1.05 
1.66 
2.19 
2.69 
.22 


4.97 


5.20  6.50  6.93 


1.18 
1.77 
2.34 
2.86 
3.44 


70  3.94 
4.15  4.44 
4.58  4.89 


5.64 
5.92 
6.14 
6.31 
6.44 
6.50  6.93 


5.30 
5.69 
6.02 
6.32 
6.54 
6.73 


The  H.P.  becomes  a  maximum  at 
87.41  ft.  per  sec.  =5245  ft.  per  min. 


Riveted  Belts,  S  =  400. 


Thickness  in  inches  =  t. 


>  ^ 


15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
S5 
90 
100 


1.69 
2.24 
2.79 


1.94 
2.57 
3.19 


3.31  3.79 
3.82  4.37 
4.3314.95 
4.85  5.49 
5.26  6.01 
5.68  6.50 
6.09  6.96 


6.45 
6.78 


7.37 
7.75 


7.09  8.11 
7.36  8.41 
7.58  8.66 


8.85 
9.10 


2.42 
3.21 
3.98 
4.74 
5.46 


7.51 
8.12 
8.70; 
9.22 
9.69 
10.13 
10.51 
10.82 
11.06 
11.37 


2.58 
3.42 
4.25 
5.05 
5.83 
6.60 
7.32 
8.02 
8.66 
9.28 
9.83 
10.33 
10.84 
11.21 
11.55 
11.80 
12.13 


2.91 
3.85 
4.78 
5.67 
6.56 
7.42 
8.43 
9.02 
9.74 
10.43 
11.06 
11.62 
12.16 
12.61 
13.00 
13.27 
13.65 


3.39 
4.49 
5.57 
6.62 
7.65 


10.52 
11.36 
12.17 
12.90 
13.56 
14.18 
14.71 
15.16 
15.48 
15.92 


3.87 
5.13 
6.37 
7.58 
8.75 
9.90 
9.70  10.98 


12.03 
13.00 
13.91 
14.75 
15.50 
16.21 
16.81 
17.32 
17.69 
18.20 


The  H.P.  becomes  a  maximum  i 
105.4  ft.  per  sec.  =  6324  ft.  per  min. 


In  the  above  table  the  angle  of  subtension,  a  is  taken  at  180 
degrees. 

Should  it  be  [  90°|l00°|110°ll20°|130°[l40°|150°ll60°|l70°[l80''|200<' 

Multiply  above  values  by.  I  .651  .7ol  .751  .791  .831  .871  .911  .941  .971    1  1 1.05 

A.  F.  Nagle's  Formula  {Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  ii,  1881,  p.  91. 
Tables  published  in  1882). 


H.P.  =  CVtw 


IS  -  0.012 

\        550       j ' 


C=  1  —  IQ-^-^"^^^ fa:  t  =  thickness  in  inches; 

a=  degrees  of  belt  contact;  v=  velocity  in  feet  per  second; 

/  =  coefficient  of  friction ;  S  =  stress  upon  belt  per  square 

w=  width  in  inches;  inch. 


290 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES  ON  BELTING. 

Forniuke  are  useful  for  proportioning  belts  and  pulleys,  but 
the}  furnish  no  means  of  estimating  how  much  power  a  particular 
belt  may  be  transmitting  at  any  given  time,  any  more  than  the 
size  of  the  engine  is  a  measure  of  the  load  it  is  actually  drawing, 
or  the  kno^vTi  strength  of  a  horse  is  a  measure  of  the  load  on  the 
wagon.  The  only  reliable  means  of  determining  the  power 
actually  transmitted  is  some  form  of  djTiamometer.  (See 
Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  vol.  xii,  p.  707.) 

If  we  increase  the  thickness,  the  power  transmitted  ought  to 
increase  in  proportion;  and  for  double  belts  we  should  have  half 
the  width  required  for  a  single  belt  under  the  same  conditions. 
With  large  pulleys  and  moderate  velocities  of  belt  it  is  probable 
that  this  holds  good.  With  small  pulleys,  however,  when  a 
double  belt  is  used,  there  is  not  such  perfect  contact  between  the 
pulley-face  and  the  belt,  due  to  the  rigidity  of  the  latter,  and  more 
work  is  necessary  to  bend  the  belt-fibers  than  when  a  thinner 
and  more  pliable  belt  is  used.  The  centrifugal  force  tending  to 
throw  the  belt  from  the  pulley  also  increases  with  the  thickness, 
and  for  these  reasons  the  width  of  a  double  belt  required  to 
transmit  a  given  horse  power  when  used  with  small  pulleys  is 
generall}''  assumed  not  less  than  seven-tenths  the  width  of  a 
single  belt  to  transmit  the  same  power.  (Flat her  on  "Dyna- 
mometers and  Measurement  of  Power.") 

F.  W.  Taylor,  however,  finds  that  great  phability  is  objection- 
able, and  favors  thick  belts  even  for  small  pulleys.  The  power 
consumed  in  bending  the  belt  around  the  pulley  he  considers 
inappreciable.  According  to  Rankine's  formula  for  centrifugal 
tension,  this  tension  is  proportional  to  the  sectional  area  of  the 
belt,  and  hence  it  does  not  increase  with  increase  of  thickness 
when  the  width  is  decreased  in  the  same  proportion,  the  sectional 
area  remaining  constant. 

Scott  A.  Smith  {Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  x,  765)  says:  The  best 
belts  are  made  from  all  oak-tanned  leather,  and  curried  with  the 
use  of  cod  oil  and  tallow,  all  to  be  of  superior  quality.  Such 
belts  have  continued  in  use  thirty  to  forty  years  when  used  as 
simple  driving-belts,  driving  a  proper  amount  of  power,  and 
having  had  suitable  care.  The  flesh  side  should  not  be  run  to 
the  pulley-face,  for  the  reason  that  the  wear  from  contact  with 
the  pulley  should  come  on  the  grain  side,  as  that  surface  of  the 


Miscellaneous  Notes  on  Belting 


291 


belt  is  much  weaker  in  its  tensile  strength  than  the  flesh  side; 
also  as  the  grain  is  hard  it  is  more  enduring  for  the  wear  of 
attrition;  further,  if  the  grain  is  actually  worn  off,  then  the  belt 
may  not  suffer  in  its  integrity  from  a  ready  tendency  of  the  hard 
grain  side  to  crack. 

The  most  intimate  contact  of  a  belt  with  a  pulley  comes,  first, 
in  the  smoothness  of  a  pulley-face,  including  freedom  from  ridges 
and  hollows  left  by  turning-tools;  second,  in  the  smoothness  of 
the  surface  and  evenness  in  the  texture  or  body  of  a  belt;  third, 
in  having  the  crown  of  the  driving  and  receiving  pulleys  exactly 
alike,  —  as  nearly  so  as  is  practicable  in  a  commercial  sense ; 
fourth,  in  having  the  crown  of  pulleys  not  over  |  inch  for  a  24-inch 
face,  that  is  to  say,  that  the  pulley  is  not  to  be  over  I  inch  larger 
in  diameter  in  its  center;  fifth,  in  having  the  crown  other  than  two 
planes  meeting  at  the  center;  sixth,  the  use  of  any  material  on 
or  in  a  belt,  in  addition  to  those  necessarily  used  in  the  currying 
process,  to  keep  them  pliable  or  increase  their  tractive  quality, 
should  wholly  depend  upon  the  exigencies  arising  in  the  use  of 
belts;  non-use  is  safer  than  over-use;  seventh,  with  reference  to 
the  lacing  of  belts,  it  seems  to  be  a  good  practice  to  cut  the  ends 
to  a  convex  shape  by  using  a  former,  so  that  there  may  be  a 
nearly  uniform  stress  on  the  lacing  through  the  center  as  com- 
pared with  the  edges.  For  a  belt  10  inches  wide,  the  center  of 
each  end  should  recede  inch. 

Lacing  of  Belts.  —  In  punching  a  belt  for  lacing,  use  an  oval 
punch,  the  longer  diameter  of  the  punch  being  parallel  with  the 
sides  of  the  belt.  Punch  two  rows  of  holes  in  each  end,  placed 
zigzag.  In  a  3-inch  belt  there  should  be  four  holes  in  each  end  — 
two  in  each  row.  In  a  6-inch  belt,  seven  holes  —  four  in  the  row 
nearest  the  end.  A  10-in.  belt  should  have  nine  holes.  The 
edge  of  the  holes  should  not  come  nearer  than  f  inch  from  the  sides, 
nor  I  inch  from  the  ends  of  the  belt.  The  second  row  should  be 
at  least  If  inches  from  the  end.  On  wide  belts  these  distances 
should  be  even  a  little  greater. 

Begin  to  lace  in  the  center  of  the  belt  and  take  care  to  keep  the 
ends  exactly  in  line,  and  to  lace  both  sides  with  equal  tightness. 
The  lacing  should  not  be  crossed  on  the  side  of  the  belt  that  runs 
next  the  pulley.  In  taking  up  belts,  observe  the  same  rules  as  in 
putting  on  new  ones. 

Setting  a  Belt  on  Quarter-twist.  —  A  belt  must  run  squarely 
on  to  the  pulley.    To  connect  with  a  belt  two  horizontal  shafts 


292 


The  Science  of  Ivnitting 


at  right  angles  with  each  other,  say  an  engine-shaft  near  the  floor 
with  a  line  attached  to  the  ceiling,  will  require  a  quarter-turn. 
First,  ascertain  the  central  point  on  the  face  of  each  pulley  at  the 
extremity  of  the  horizontal  diameter  where  the  belt  will  leave 
the  pulley,  and  then  set  that  point  on  the  driven  pulley  plumb 
over  the  corresponding  point  on  the  driver.  This  will  cause 
the  belt  to  run  squarely  on  to  each  pulley,  and  it  will  leave  at  an 
angle  greater  or  less,  according  to  the  size  of  the  pulleys  and  their 
distance  from  each  other. 

In  quarter-twist  belts,  in  order  that  the  belt  may  remain  on 
the  pulleys,  the  central  plane  on  each  pulley  must  pass  through 
the  point  of  delivery  of  the  other  pulley.  This  arrangement  does 
not  admit  of  reversed  motion. 

To  find  the  Length  of  Belt  required  for  two  given  Pulleys.  — 
When  the  length  cannot  be  measured  directly  by  a  tape-line 
the  following  approximate  rule  may  be  used:  Add  the  diameter 
of  the  two  pulleys  together,  divide  the  sum  by  2,  and  multiply 
the  quotient  by  3^,  and  add  the  product  to  twice  the  distance 
between  the  centers  of  the  shafts. 


ANALOGIES  BETWEEN  THE  FLOW  OF  WATER  AND 
ELECTRICITY 


Water 

Head,  difference  of  level,  in 
feet. 

Difference  of  pressure,  lbs.  per 
sq.  in. 

Resistance  of  pipes,  apertures, 
etc.,  increases  with  length  of 
pipe,  with  contractions, 
roughness,  etc.;  decreases 
with  increase  of  sectional 
area. 

Rate  of  flow,  as  cubic  ft.  per 
second,  gallons  per  min., 
etc.,  or  volume  divided  by 
the  time.  In  the  mining  re- 
gions sometimes  expressed 
in  "miners'  inches." 


Electricity 

Volts;  electro-motive  force;  dif- 
ference of  potential;  E.  or 
E.M.F. 

Ohms,  resistance,  R.  Increases 
directly  as  the  length  of  the 
conductor  or  wire  and  in- 
versely as  its  sectional  area, 
R  CO  I  -i-  s.  It  varies  with 
the  nature  of  the  conductor. 
'Amperes:  current;  current 
strength;  intensity  of  current; 
rate  of  flow;  1  ampere  =  1 
<     coulomb  per  second. 

.  volts    r     E  „ 

IR. 


Analogies  Between  the  Flow  of  Water  and  Electricity  293 


Water 

Quantity,  usually  measured  in 
f  cubic  ft.  or  gallons,  but  is 
also  equivalent  to  rate  of 
flow  X  time,  as  cu.  ft.  per 
second  for  so  many  hours. 

Work,  or  energy,  measured  in 
foot-pounds;  product  of 
weight  of  falling  water  into 
height  of  fall;  in  pumping, 
product  of  quantity  in  cubic  ^ 
feet  into  the  pressure  in  lbs. 
per  square  foot  against 
which  the  water  is  pumped. 

Power,  rate  of  work.  Horse  ( 
power  =  ft.-lbs.  of  work  in 
1  min.  ^  33,000.  In  water 
flowing  in  pipes,  rate  of  flow  - 
in  cu.  ft.  per  second  X  re- 
sistance to  the  flow  in  lbs. 
per  sq.  ft.  -i-  550. 


Electricity 

Coulomb,  unit  of  quantity, 
Q,  =  rate  of  flow  X  time,  as 
ampere-seconds.  1  ampere- 
hour  =  3600  coulombs. 

'Joule,    volt-coulomb,    W,  the 
unit  of  work,  =  product  of 
quantity  by  the  electro-mo- 
tive   force    =  volt-ampere- 
second.      1    joule  =  0.7373 
foot-pound. 
If  C  (amperes)  =  rate  of  flow, 
and  E  (volts)  =  difference  of 
pressure  between  two  points 
in  a  circuit,  energy  expended 
^     =  lEt,  =  PRt. 
f  Watt,    unit   of   power,    P,  = 
volts  X  amperes,  =  current 
or  rate  of  flow  X  difference 
of  potential. 
1    watt  =  0.7373  foot-pound 
per  sec.  =  1/746  of  a  horse 
power. 


294 


The  Science  of  Knitting 


TABLE  OF  ELECTRICAL.  HORSE-POWERS. 


Formula: 


Volts  X  Amperes 
746 


=  H.P.,     or     1  volt  ampere  =  .0013405  H.P. 


Read  amperes  at  top  and  volts  at  side  or  vice  versa. 


S-2 
$1 

<  o 


Volts  or  Amperes. 


27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 1 
83 
34 
33 
40 
45 
60 
55 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 
100 
200 
300 
400 
500 
600 
700 
800 
900 
1.000 
2.000 
3.000 
4,000j 
5.000' 
6.000: 
7,000 
8.000 
9.000 
10,000 


10        20        30        40        50      60  70 


.00134 

.00268 
.00402 
.00536 
.00670 
.00804 
.00938 
.01072 
.01206 
.01341 
.01475 
.01609 
.01743 
.01877 
.02011 
.02145 
.02279 
.02413 
.02547 
.02681 
.02815 
.02949, 
.030831 
.032171 
.a3351 
.034851 
.036191 
.037531 
.03887 
.04022 
.04156 
.04290 
.04424 
.045581 
.046921 
.05362' 
.060321 
.067031 
.073731 
.08043 
.08713' 
.09384 
.10054 
.10724 
.11394 
.12065 
.12735 
.13405 
.26810 
.40215 
.53620' 
.67025 
.80430 
.93835 
1.0724 
1.2065 
1.3405 
2.6810 
4.0215 
5.3620 
6.7025 
8.0430 
9.3835 
10.724 
12.065 
13.405  I 


.0134 

.0268 
.0402, 
.0536' 
.0670' 
.0804 
.0938, 
.1072 
,1206; 
.1341 
.1475! 
.16091 
.1743' 
.1877 
.2011 
.2145 1 
.2279' 
.24131 
,2547; 
.2681 1 
.28I5' 
.2949 
.3083 
.3217 
.3351 1 
.34851 
.3619 
.3753 
.3887 
.4022 
.4156 
.4290 
.4424 
.4558 
.4692 
.5362 
.6032 
.6703 
.7373 


.87131 
.9384 

1.005 

1.072 

1.139  j 

1.206 

1.273 

1.341  I 

2.681 

4.022 

5.362  I 

6.703  ' 

8.043  , 


.1072! 
.1341, 
.1609 
.18771 
.2145 
.2413 
.2631 
.2949 
.3217 
.3485 
.3753 
.4022 
.4290 
.4558 
.4826 
.5094 
.5362 


.5630! 
.5898 
.6166 
.6434 
.6703 
.6971 
.7239 
.7507 
.7775 
.8043 
.83111 
.8579; 


10.72 
12.06 
13.41 
26.81 
40.22 
53.62 
67.03 
80.43 
93.84 
107.2 
120.6 
134.1 


.9115 
.9384, 
1.072 
1.206 
1.341 
1.475 
1.609 
1.743 
1.877 
2.011 
2.145 
2.279 
2.413 
2.547 
2.681 
5.362 
8.043 
10.72 
13.41 
16.09 
18.77 
21.45 
24.13 
26.81 
53.62 
80.43 
107.2 
134. 1 


.1609 
.2011 
.2413' 

.2815: 

.3217 
.3619 
.4022 
.44241 
.4826 
.5228 
.5630 
.6032 
.6434; 
.6837 
.7239 
.7641 
.8043 
.8445' 
.8847 
.9249 
.9652 
1.005 
1.046 
1.086 
1.126 
1.166 
1.206 
1.247 
1.287 
1.327 
1.367 
1.408 
1.609 
1.810 
2.011 
2.212 
2.413 
2.614 
2.815 
3.016 
3.217 
3.418 
3.619 
3.820 
4.022 
8.043 
12.06 
16.09 
20.11 
24.13 
28.15 
32.17 
36.19 
40.22 
80.43 
120.6 
160.9 
201.1 


.1072 
.1609 
.2145 
.2681 
.3217 
.3753 
.4290 
.4826 
.5362 
.5898 
.6434 
.6970 
.7507 
.8043 
.8579 
.9115 
.9652 
1.019 
1.072 
1.126 
I.ISO 
1.233 
1.287 
1.341 
1.394 
1.448 
1.501 
1.555 
1.609 


.06701  .0804! 
.13411  -1609- 


.2011 
.2681 
.3351 
.4022 
.4692 
.5362 
.6032 
.6703 
.7373 
.8043 


.24131 
.3217 
.4022 
.4826 
.5630 
.6434 
.72391 
.8043! 
.8847 ' 
.9652 


1072 
1877  .2145 
.2815  .3217 
.4290 
.5362 
.6434 
.7507 
.8579 
.9652 
.072 


90       100     110  120 


160.9  241.3 

187.7  281.5 

214.5  321.7 

241.3  361.9 

268.1  402.2 


1.662 
1.716 
1.769 
1.823 
1.877 
2.145 
2.413 
2.681 
2.949 
3.217 
3.485 
3.753 
4.021 
4.290 
4.558 
4.826 
5.094 
5.362 
10.72 
16.09 
21.45 
26.81 
32.17 
37.53 
42.90 
48.26 
53.62 
107.2 
160.9 
214.5 
268  1 
321.7 
375.3 
429.0 
482.6 
536.2 


.8713  1.046 
.9384  1.126 
1.005  .1.206 
1.072  '1.287 
1.139  1.367 
1.206  ; 1.448 
1.273  1.528 
1.340  1.609 


1.40S 
1.475 
1.542 
1.609 
1.676 
1.743 
1.810 
1.877 
1.944 
2.011 
2.078 
2.145 
2.212 
2.279 
2.346 
2.681 
3.016 
3.351 
3.686 
4.022 

4.357 
4.692 
5.027 
5.362 
5.697 
6.032 
6.367 
6.703 
13.41 
20.11 
26.81 
33.51 
40.22 
46.92 
53.62 
60.32 
67.03 
134.1 
201.1 
268.1 
335  1 
402.2 
469.2 
536.2 
603.2 
670.3 


.7507 
.8445 
.9383 
1.032 
1.126 
1.220 
1.314 
1.408 
1.501 
1.595 
1.689 
1.783 
1.877 


.1206 
.2413 
.3619 
4826 


.1341   .1475'  .1609- 

.2681   .2949I  .3217 

.4022   .4424  .4826 

.5362   .5898 1  .6434 

6032    .6703,  .7373  '8043 

72391  .8043'  .8847  .9652 
8445'  .9384  1.032 


.9652  1.072 
1.206 
1.341 


1.180 
1.287 
1.394 
1.501 
1.609 
1.716 
1.823 
1.930 
2.037 
2.145 


1.689 
1.769 
1.850 
1.930 
2.011 
2.091 
2.172 
2.252 
2.332 
2.413 
2.493 
2.574 
2.654 
2.735 
2.815 
3.217 
3.619 
4.022 
4.424 
4.826 
5.228 
5.630 
6.032 
6.434 
6.836: 
7.239 
7.641 
8.043 
16.09  , 
24.13  i 
32.17: 
40.221 
48.26' 
56.30 
64.34 
72.39 
80.43 
,160.9  i 
1241.3  ! 
1321.7  ' 
402.2 
482.6 
563.0 
643.4 
723.9 
804.3 


1.971  12.252 

2.064  12.359 

2.158  '2.467 

2.252  ;2.574 

2.346  [2.6S1 

2.440  [2.788 

2.534  12.895 

2.627  I3.OO3 

2.721  13.110 

2.815  3.217 

2.909  3.324 

3.003  ,3.432 

3.097  3.539 


3.190 
3.284 
3.753 
4.223 
4.692 
5.161 


3.646 
3.753 
4  290 
4.826 
5.362 
5.898 
6.434 
6.970 
6.568'  7.507 
7.037:  8.043 
7.507I  8.579 
7.976  9.115 
8.445I  9.652 
8.914  10.18 
9.384  10.72 
18.77  21.45 
28.15  32.17 


1.086 
1.206 
1.327 
1.448 
1.568 
1.689 
1.810  2.011 
1.930  2.145 
2.051  i2.279 


1.475 
1.609 
1.743 
1.877 


2.172 
2.292 
2.413 
2.533 
2.654 
2.775 
2.895 
3.016 
3.137 
3.257 
3.378 
3.499 
3.619 


2.413 
2.547 
2.681 
2.815 
2.949 


3.740 
3.861 
3.986 
4.102 
4.223 
4.826 


3.351 
3.485 
3.619 
3.753 
3.887 
4.022 
4.156 
4.290 
4.424 


1.180 
1.327 
1.475 
1.622 
1.769 
1.917 
2.064 
2.212 


1.126 
1.287 
1.448 
1.609 
1.769 
1.930 
2.091 
2.252 
2.413 


2.359  2.574 

2.507  2.735 

2.654  2.895 

2.801  3.056 

2.949  3.217 

3.097  3.378 

3.244  3.539 

3.391  3.700 

3.217  3.539  3.861 


3.6S6  4.022 
3.834  4.182 
3.981  4.343 


4.129 
4.276 
4.424 


4.571 
4.719 
4.866 
4.558  15.013 
4.692  |5.161 

5.363  15.898  6.434 

5.439  (6.032  6.635  7.239 

6.032  6.703  7.373  8.043 

6.635  7.373  18. 110  8.847 

7.239  '8.043  18.047  9.652 


4.504 
4.665 
4.826 
4.987 
5.148 
5.308 
5.469 
5.630 


7.842  8.7131 
8.445  9.384 
9.048  10.05 


37.53 
46.92 
56.30 
65.68 
75.07 
84.45 


10.72 
11.39 
12.06 
12.73 
13.41 


42.90 
.53.62 
64.34 
75.07 
85.79 
96.52 


93.84  107.2 
187.7  ,214.5 
281.5  1321.7 
375.3  1429.0 


469.2 
563.0 
656.8 
750.7 
844.5 


536.2 
643.4 
750.7 
857.9 
965.2 
1072 


9.652 
10.26 
10.86 
11.46 
12.06 
24.13  I  26.81 
36.19  I  40.22 
48.26;  53.62 
60.32;  67.03 
72.39'  80.43 
84.45  93.84 
96.52  107.2 
108.6  1 120.6 
120.6  1 134.1 
241.3  268.1 
361.9  1402.2 
482.6  ,536.2 
603. 2'  670.3 
723.9  804.3 
844.5  938.4 
965.2  1072 
1086  1206 
1206  jl341 


64.34 


9.584  10.46 
10.32  11.26 
11.06  12.06 
11.80  12.87 
12.53  113.67 
13.27  14.48 
14.01  15.28 
14.75  16.09 
29.49  32.17 
44.24  48.26 

58.98 

73.73 

88.47  96.52 
103.2  112.6 
118.0  128.7 

132.7  144.8 
147.5  160.9 
294.9  321.7 
442.4  482.6 

589.8  643.4 
737.3,  804.3 
884.7;  965.J 

1032  1126 
1180  'l287 
1327  11448 
1475  1609 


INDEX 


Contents  in  serial  order  and  illustrations  and  tables  in  alphabetical  order  are 
listed  in  front  of  book. 
This  index  includes  topics,  designated  by  heavy  figures,  illustrations  and 


tables. 

A 

Page 

Abbreviations   2 

Adapting,  a  design  to  a  range  of  cylinder  sizes   243 

the  pattern  to  different  presser  positions   241 

Adjusting  in  general   160 

Adjusting  the  yarn  carrier   171 

Analogies  between  the  flow  of  water  and  electricity   292 

Analysis  of  designs  (see  also  Design). 

determining,  direction  of  lap    236 

height   234 

knitting  motion   236 

possible  number  of  feeds,  table   235 

width   233 

diagram  of  sample  design,  illustration   235 

dimensions  of  sample  design   235 

marking  limiting  stitches                                        .  234 

methods    232 

numbers  of  needles  to  dupHcate  sample,  table   237 

structure  of  sample   235 

Areas  of  circles,  table   280 

B 

Backing  (see  Fleeced  goods). 

Backward  motion   1 

Belt,  leather,  power  transmission,  table   289 

Bobbin,  Bobbins,  delivery  twists  yarn   103 

how  wound   103 

number,  effect  on  lost  time   96-255-260 

winder,  upright,  capacity,  table   115 

yarn  delivery,  illustration   104 

295 


296  Index 

Page 

Boiler,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

discussion   120 

Brief  chronological  list  of  important  knitting  inventions. .  .  265 

Bur,  Burs,  cast-off   147 

compared  with  cast-off  jack   99 

invention,  table   265 

lander   146 

sinker   140 

two  sinkers  for  two-thread  work   99 

C 

Calculation,  Calculations  (see  also  Example  and  Deri- 
vations). 

adapting  a  design  to  a  given  number  of  needles .  .  241-242 

design,  figure   227 

Cam,  Cams,  names   160 

race,  double   158 

Cardigan  fabric,  variation  from  regular  width   58 

Carding,  floor-space  allotment,  discussion   119 

table   118 

Carrier,  yarn,  adjusting   171 

Cast-off,  bur   147 

comparison  of  jack  and  rotary   99 

Causes  of  lost  time   70 

Change  of  yarn  with  corresponding  change  of  stitch   261 

Circumferences  of  circles,  table   280 

of  Wildman  ribbers  at  back  of  needles,  table   184 

Clearing  tucks  (see  Design  and  Pattern  wheel). 

Clockwise  motion,  definition   1 

Coal  for  knitting  mills,  consumption  per  set   117 

Coils  (see  also  Yarn  diameter). 

determination,  illustration   13 

per  inch  and  half-inch,  table   196 

Conditions  for  high  needle  velocity   67 

Cone,  Cones,  deUvery  twists  yarn   103 

how  wound   103 

number,  effect  on  lost  time   96-255-260 

winder,  Nutaper,  capacity,  table   114 

yarn  deUvery,  illustration   104 

Constant,  definition   1 


Index  297 

Page 

Convention,  Conventions. 

constant,  general   1 

design   216 

direction,  anticlockwise   1 

backward   1 

clockwise   1 

forward   1 

left-hand   1 

right-hand   1 

fabric,  bottom   15 

flat,  back   19 

face   19 

loop-wheel,  fundamental  relations,  table ....  45 

length   15 

motion  of  knitting,  table   204 

rib,  latch-needle,  fundamental  relations,  table. .  .  36 

top   15 

width   15 

loopj  bottom   15 

held   212 

top   15 

tuck   212 

machine,  cut  (needle  spacing)   1 

motion,  table   204 

pattern   210-211 

speed  for  automatic  ribbers   67 

stitch,  tuck   212 

variable,  general   1 

Cost,  floor-space  maintenance   121-249 

knitting  machinery,  per  set   117 

mill  buildings,  per  set   117 

Count,  Counts,  Constant-length  system   187 

constant-weight  system   187 

cotton   187 

definitions,  table   188 

importance  of  topic   9 

grain   187 

importance  of  topic   9 

transformation  between  systems   187 

rules   193 

table   194 


J 

298  Index 

Page 

Count,  Counts,  transformation  within  systems   188 

used  for  different  Ixinds  of  yarns   189 

importance  of  topic ....  9 

where  used   190 

Course,  Courses,  definition   14 

first   15 

length   15 

number  in  tuck  wale   156 

per  hour,  determination   75 

size,  comparison   18 

width   18 

Courses  per  inch,  and  wales,  product  dependent  on  stitches.  29 
compared  with  stitches  per  foot  to  describe  fabric ...  70 

formula,  importance  of   43 

from  other  fabric  dimensions,  formula   93 

maximum  number,  tables   40-48 

regular  fabrics,  relation  to  wales   32 

relation  to  wales  for  stitches  constant  and  yarn 

variable   27 

for  yarn  variable,  illustration   28 

Cube,  Cubes,  table   278 

roots,  table   278 

Cut,  Cuts  (of  machine)  (see  also  Gauge  and  Needles  per  inch). 

effect  on  economy   255 

formula,  importance  of   41 

latch-needle  rib,  relation  to  yarn   49 

relation  to  yarn,  illustration   50 

meanings   1 

measured  on  cam  surface,  table   175 

on  needle  line,  table   130 

of  hosiery  machines  and  ribbers   128-129 

range  of  fabric  from   138 

relation,  to  gauge   134 

formula   124 

to  needle  difference  between  machine 

sizes   243 

to  yarn  for  different  machines,  table   53 

to  yarn  number   23-25 

to  correspond  to  given  conditions   257 

Cut  (of  yarn)  (see  also  Yarn  and  Count). 

conflict  with  machine  cut   1 


Index  299 
D 

Page 

Definition,  Definitions,  anticlockwise   1 

cams   160 

clockwise   1 

constant   1 

course   14 

cut  (needle  spacing)   124 

design   216 

diametral  revolutions   2 

field   216 

figure   216 

gauge  (needle  spacing)   2-124 

table   127 

gauge  (needle  thickness)   2 

geometric  terms   286 

held  loop   212 

knitting   14 

left-hand  motion   1 

twist   102 

pattern   211 

power   277 

right-hand  motion   1 

twist  :   101 

stitch,  stitches   15 

per  foot  of  yarn   19 

rib   21 

tuck  loop   212 

stitch   212 

variable   1 

wale   15 

work   277 

yarn  counts,  table   188 

Derivation,  linear  yards  per  hour,  formula   75 

of  cut  for  given  conditions   258 

of  diameter  of  yarn  from  yarn-cut-rule  constant   55 

of  yarn  number  from  given  conditions   257 

relation  of  cut  and  coils   23 

of  diameter  of  yarn  to  needle  spacing   55 

of  gauge  and  cut   124 

of  yarn,  diameter  and  cut   23 


300  Index 

Page 

Derivation,  relation  of  yarn  number  and  cut   25 

numbers  for  rib  and  flat  machines  125 

single  equivalent  of  two  or  more  yarns   192 

square  yard  production   78 

weight-per-square-yard  formula   92 

width  of  fabric   17 

yarn  number  for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight  machine. .  .  63 
Design,  Designs  (see  Analysis  of  Designs,  Pattern,  Pat- 
tern wheel). 

adaptable  cylinder  sizes   244 

adaptation  of  pattern  to  different  presser  positions   241 

to  a  given  number  of  needles   241 

to  a  range  of  cylinder  sizes   243 

arrangement,  incUnation   227 

calculations   227 

changing  needles  to  clear  tucks   245 

size  of  presser  to  clear  tucks   245 

condition  for   220 

conversion  of  diagram  into  strip  pattern,  illustration .  .  .  238 

definition   216 

diagram   231 

without  plain  pressers   246 

double-cam-race  pattern  rules   158 

effect  of  increasing  needles   221 

effect  of  lap  of  more  than  one  division,  illustrations. .  .  .  222 

of  motion  and  lap,  table   226 

of  needle  changes  of  more  than  one  division   221 

of  reversal  of  lap,  illustrations   222 

of  motion,  illustrations   222 

of  reversing  motion   220 

exception  to  rule,  illustrations   247-248 

figure  and  field   216 

fully  formed,  illustrations   218-219 

inclined,  illustrations   218-219 

formation  of  strip  pattern  to  represent  pattern  wheel.  .  .  239 

general  fundamental  rule   221 

generally  reduced  in  modification   242 

height   227-230 

improper  pattern  wheel   245 

inversion  of  figure   237 

length  of  pattern   229 


Index  301 

Page 

Design,  long-and-short-latch  pattern  rules   157 

needles  decreased   219 

not  readily  changed   227 

numerical  method   223 

illustrations   225 

paper-strip  method,  advantages   223 

pattern  wheel  represented  by  strip  pattern,  illustrations  240 

possible  numbers  of  feeds,  table   235 

of  needles,  table   237 

proof  of  strip  pattern   239 

range   224 

real  and  apparent   224 

reversal  of  the  color  of  the  figure   216 

rule  for  selection  of  lap   237 

sample,  illustration   232 

selection  of  lap   236 

self-clearing  pattern  wheel   244 

several  seK-clearing  pattern  wheels   246 

strip  pattern,  winding   217 

stripes,  incUned,  illustrations   218-219 

mixed,  illustrations   218-219 

vertical,  illustrations   218-219 

successive,  inchnation   227 

terminal  courses  should  be  different   231 

Designing  (see  also  Design,  Pattern,  Pattern  wheel.  Stitch). 

causes  of  figure  changes   210 

definition  of  pattern   210 

learning   216 

with  pattern  wheels,  importance  of  topic   10 

Determining  weight  per  square  yard  by  weighing   95 

Diagram  of  design  (see  also  Design  and  Pattern  wheel). 

from  a  sample,  illustration   235 

of  design  without  plain  presser   246 

representation  of  plain  and  tuck  courses   231 

terminal  courses  should  be  different   231 

Diameter,  of  machine,  effect  on  economy   252 

of  yarn  (see  Yarn). 

Diameters  of  Wildman  ribbers  from  back  to  back  of  cyhn- 
der  needles,  table   184 

Diametral  revolutions  and  yarn  velocity,  table   159 

constant   67 


302  Index 

Page 

Diametral  revolutions  and  yam  velocity,  defined   2-66 

for  automatic  work  on  ribbers   67 

loop-wheel  machine,  formula   45 

rib  machine,  formula   36 

Difference  between  yarn  velocity  and  needle  velocity, 

table   159 

Dimensions,  of  regular  rib  fabrics,  illustration   270 

of  rib  fabric,  yarn  variable,  illustration   269 

Direction,  of  lap  (see  Analysis  and  Design), 
of  motion  (see  Motion), 
of  twist  in  fabric  (see  Fabric), 
of  twist  in  yarn  (see  Yarn). 

Drying,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

discussion   120 

heat  requirement   117 

Duphcation  of  a  sample  design  (see  Design). 

E 

Economics  of  knitting   249 

Electricity,  and  flow  of  water,  analogies   292 

power  for  rib-knitting  machinery,  table   122 

for  different  volts  and  amperes,  table   294 

Element  of  fabric   14 

Elements  of  knitting   14 

Engine,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

Equivalent,  of  two  or  more  yarns   192 

of  two  yarns,  table   198 

Example,  approximate  cut  of  ribbers  and  footers,  table ....  129 

change  in  production  produced  by  change  of  cut ....  255 

cut  to  correspond  to  given  conditions   257 

derivation  of  yarn-rule  constant   197 

diametral  revolutions   2-66-67 

dram-silk  number  transformed  to  cotton   193 

effect  of  yarn  change  on  fabric   259 

extent  of  yarn  twist   102 

loss  of  time  per  feed   255-262 

per  machine   260 

minimum  weight  per  square  yard   264 

needle  difference  between  machine  sizes   243 


Index  303 

Page 

Example,  New  Hampshire  number  transformed  to  Cohoes 

number   193 

pounds  production  rib   260 

presser  diameter  for  180  needles   206 

production,  hanks   69 

in  pounds  from  coils   44 

pounds   69-260 

square  yards   78 

relation  of  fabric  dimensions,  yarn  variable   31 

of  wales  and  courses  for  yarn  variable   27 

of  yarn  numbers  for  rib-  and  flat-work  machines .  125 
relative  length  of  yarn  used,  same  cut  and  needle 

velocity   87 

single  equivalent  of  two  yarns   71-193 

speed  determination  from  diametral  revolutions .  .  .  66-67 

stitch  effects  on  production  and  fabric   259 

the  second  of  two  yarns  equivalent  to  a  given  single 

yarn   193 

weight,  of  knit  goods,  yarn  variable   43 

per  square  yard,  determination  by  weighing ....  95 

yarn,  number  to  correspond  to  given  conditions   257 

transformation,  between  systems   188 

within  systems   188 

Examples  solved  with  the  aid  of  tables. 

approximate  cut  of  ribbers  and  footers   128 

gauge  transformations   127 

cut  for  a  given  weight  per  yard   92 

production,  linear  yards   68-75 

loop-wheel,  pounds  from  hanks   74 

pounds,  stitches  regular   71 

rib,  pounds  from  hanks,  stitches  regular   71 

pounds,  stitches  regular   71 

,  rib-tops   82 

square  yards   68 

for  wales,  courses  and  cut  known .  .  80 

needles,  speed  and  yarn  known   80 

two-thread,  two  methods   71-72 

weight  per  square  yard  of  flat  fabric   92 

Explanation  of  convenient  equations  for  determining  the 

number  of  yarn     190 

of  formulas  for  regular  rib  fabrics   36 


304  Index 

Page 

Explanation  of  regular  flat-fabric  formulas   45 

of  yarn-transformation  table   193 

F 

Fabric,  Fabrics  (see  also  Production). 

as  wide  as  machine,  formulas,  table   56 

bottom,  definition   15 

changing  characteristics   26 

characteristics,  how  determined   29 

circular,  ribbon  structure  illustrated   202 

determination  of  good  fabric   26 

distortion  due  to  tuck  stitches   213 

first  case,  stitches  constant,  yarn  variable   27 

flat,  back,  distinguished   19 

back,  illustration   17 

edges,  curling  tendency  of  flat  and  rib   20 

elasticity,  flat  and  rib  compared   20 

face,  distinguished   19-201 

illustration   16 

loop-wheel,  hanks,  table   74 

raveling,  flat  and  rib  compared   20 

regular,  dimensions,  table   48 

fundamental  formulas   45 

general  formulas   46-47 

rule  for  twist   107 

structure,  comparison  of  flat  and  rib   19 

thickness  per  inch,  table   48 

thicknesses  per  inch,  table   48 

twist  caused  by  yarn  twist   107 

importance  of  topic   9 

with  self -feeding  needles   101 

weight  per  square  yard,  table   90 

width,  flat  and  rib  compared   20 

formula  for  weight  per  yard,  importance   43 

foundation  principles   26 

from  different  machines,  width  variation   58 

length,  defined   15 

of  yarn  in  square  yard,  stitches  constant   31 

minimum  weight  per  square  yard   263 

illustration   264 


Index  305 

Page 

Fabric,  motion,  classified,  table   204 

conventions   199-201 

of  different  yarn  size  but  same  characteristics   21 

of  same  yarn  size  but  different  characteristics   22 

open  work,  invention,  table   265 

pattern   199 

production,  topic   66 

range  from  the  same  gauge  or  cut,  illustrations   138 

importance  of  topic ...  7 

regular,  relations,  illustration   33 

relation  of  wales  and  courses   32 

of  width  and  height,  yarn  variable   30 

illustration   30 

relative  width  from  different  machines,  rule   66 

rib,  dimensions,  yarn  variable,  illustration   269 

edges,  curling  tendency  of  flat  and  rib   20 

elasticity,  flat  and  rib  compared   20 

illustration   19-21 

raveling,  flat  and  rib  compared   20 

regular,  dimensions   40 

illustrations   270 

explanation  of  formulas   36 

fundamental  formulas   36 

general  formulas   38-39 

structure,  comparison  of  flat  and  rib   19 

thicknesses  per  inch,  table   36 

thickness,  table   40 

twist,  illustration   112 

importance  of  topic   9 

weight  per  square  yard,  table   90 

width,  flat  and  rib  compared   20 

second  case,  yarn  constant,  stitches  variable   32 

stitches  per  pound   92 

per  square  yard,  formula,  derivation   89-92 

tight  rib  illustration   21 

strength   274 

summary  regarding  twist,  importance  of  topic   9 

theory   366 

importance  of  topic   11 

third  case,  yarn  diameter  inversely  proportional 

to  stitches   32 


306  Index  ^ 

Page 

Fabric,  three  general  cases   26 

top,  defined   15-199 

twist,  illustration   107 

minor  causes   Ill 

not  dependent  on  machine  motion   Ill 

summary   113 

various,  width  variation  from  rule   58 

weight  per  square  yard  formula   92-93 

for  different  yarn  counts   94 

stitches  constant   32 

width,  defined   15-17 

formulas,  various   17 

from  different  machines,  importance  of  topic ...  7 

table   65 

topic   63 

of  flattened  tube,  table   59-62 

topic   57 

various  formulas   18 

Factors  of  production,  general   66 

linear  yards   70 

Feeds  and  pattern  divisions  for  24  courses,  table   235 

effect  on  economy   70-255-260 

maximum  number   67 

number  in  set   116 

to  produce  a  given  design,  table   235 

Field,  of  design,  definition   216 

Figure  designing  with  pattern  wheels   199 

definition   216 

dimensions   235 

inversion   237 

inverted  by  lap  and  motion,  table    226 

structure   235 

tuck,  illustration   232 

white  block  in  mixed  field,  illustration   215 

Finishing  and  seaming,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

discussion   120 

required  proportion  of  mill  power,  table   123 

First  course   15 

Fleeced  goods,  flat,  invention,  table  (see  also  Machine, 

loop-wheel)   265 

production,  method  of  calculating   74 


Index  307 

Page 

Fleeced  goods,  flat,  yarn  for  different  gauges   138 

table   139 

Floor-space  in  knitting  mills,  allotment,  conclusions.  .....  121 

per  set,  explanation   119 

cost  of  maintenance   121 

table   118 

Footer  (see  Machine,  automatic  hosiery). 

Formation  of  loop   15 

Formula,  Formulas  (see  also  Derivations). 

courses,  from  other  fabric  dimensions   93 

cut,  relation  to  coils   23 

to  gauge   125 

to  needle  spacing   23 

diameter  of  yarn  for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight 

machine  •   63 

fabric,  fabrics,  flat,  regular,  fundamental,  table   45 

regular  '   271 

rib,  regular,  fundamental,  table   36 

stitches  constant  and  yarn  variable   268 

weight,  minimum  per  square  yard   264 

width  in  various  terms   17 

of  flattened  tube  in  various  terms   18 

production,  relative  for  proportional  change  of 

yarn  and  stitch   262 

rib,  ten  hours   259 

without  constants   252-261 

stitches  per  foot  from  other  fabric  dimensions   93 

rib,  maximum  number   186 

minimum  number   186 

per  pound  of  fabric   92 

per  square  inch,  relation  to  yarn  number ....  81 

per  square  yard  of  fabric   89-92 

wales,  from  other  fabric  dimensions   93 

weight  per  square  yard  for  different  yarn  counts ....  94 

importance  of  topic   8 

single  thread   92 

two-thread,  different  stitch ...  93 

same  stitch   93 

width  of  fabric  equal  to  machine  width,  table   56 

winder  capacity,  Nutaper,  table   114 

upright,  bobbin,  table   115 


308  Index 

Page 

Formula,  yarn,  diameter,  from  the  yarn-cut  rule   55 

relation  to  cut   23 

to  needle  spacing   23 

number,  relation  to  yarn  size,  illustration   24 

for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight  machine .  63-65 
for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine  diam- 
eter  64r-65 

from  other  fabric  dimensions   93 

relation  to  gauge  for  backing,  loop-wheel  139 
to  latch-needle  cut,  illustration. ...  50 
to   spring-needle  gauge,  illustra- 
tion   52 

table   191 

relation  of  number  and  cut   25 

and  diameter   25 

to  cut  for  different  counts   195 

to  gauge  for  different  counts   195 

single  equivalent  of  two,  importance   10 

of  two  or  more   192 

the  second  of  two  equivalent  to  a  given  single 

yarn   192 

Forward  motion  defined   1 

Functions,  trigonometric,  natural,  table   282 

G 

Garments,  weight  per  dozen,  stitches  constant   32 

Gauge  (needle  spacing)  definitions,  table   127 

different  standards   125 

needles  per  inch,  table   126 

explanation   2 

range  of  fabrics  from   138 

relation  to  cut   124 

to  yarn  for  different  machines,  table   53 

spring-needle  loop-wheel,  relation  to  yarn   52 

Gauge  (needle  thickness)  explanation   2 

H 

Hanger  friction   122 

Hanks,  explanation   24 

production,  factors   70 


Index  309 

Page 

Hanks,  production,  latch-needle  rib,  table   73 

loop- wheel  flat,  table   74 

Heat  for  knitting  mills,  cost  per  set   117 

Height  (see  the  subject  of  which  the  height  is  desired). 

Help,  effect  on  economy   254 

Hooking  fabric  on  ribber   164 

Horse  power  (see  Power). 


I 

Illustrations  (see  the  subject  in  this  index,  also  separate 


list  at  front  of  book). 

Incandescent  mantle  pattern   155 

Inch,  fractions,  decimal  equivalents,  table   277 

Inventions,  knitting,  important,  table   265 

Inventors,  knitting,  important,  table   265 

Inversion  of  tuck  figure   237 

J 

Jack,  cast-off,  comparison  with  rotary  cast-off   99 

sinker  bur,  inventions,  table   265 

sinker  machine  (see  Machine). 

K 

Knitting  and  winding,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

definition   14 

economics   249 

importance  of  topic   11 

elements,  importance  of  topic   5 

flat,  trouble,  cause  and  remedy   150 

floor-space,  discussion   119 

inventions,  brief  chronological  hst   265 

machine,  expense   250 

operator,  expense   251 

required  proportion  of  mill  power,  table   123 

rib,  trouble,  cause  and  remedy   171 

rules,  practical  variations,  importance  of  topic   6 

space,  expense   249 

yarn  damage,  expense   250 


310 


Index 


L 

Page 

Lander  bur   146 

Lap  (see  Pattern,  Analysis  and  Design). 

Left-hand  motion  defined   1 

twist,  illustration  (see  also  Fabric  and  Yarn)   102 

explanation   102 

Length  (see  the  subject  of  which  the  length  is  desired). 
Linear  yard  (see  Yard,  hnear). 

Locating  sources  of  trouble  in  rib-knitting   167 

Loop,  Loops,  bottom   115 

distortion  caused  by  yarn  twist   105 

floated   213 

formation   15 

held,  illustration   211-212-213 

must  be  cleared   214 

length,  relation  to  stitches  per  foot   19 

needle   15 

illustration   16 

normal,  illustration   106 

sinker   15 

illustration   16 

structure,  influenced  by  yarn  resilience   35 

top   15 

tuck,  is  kept  out  of  face  of  fabric   214 

single  and  double,  illustration   212 

illustration   211 

two-thread,  on  latch  needle,  illustration   100 

on  spring  needle,  illustration   97 

which  causes  left-hand- twist  fabric,  illustration   106 

right-hand-twist  fabric,  illustration.  .  .  106 

Lost  time,  causes  of  #.   70 

effect  of  change  in  the  number  of  feeds   255-260 

in  two-thread  work  due  to  the  extra  threads   96 

M 

Machine,  Machines  (see  also  Ribber). 

adjusting  in  general   160 

automatic  hosiery,  convenient  cut  calculations   138 

fabric  width,  proportion  of  diameter,  table   65 


Index  311 

Page 

Machine,  fabric  width,  variation  from  theoretical ........  58 

yarn-cut  rule,  similarity  to  loop-wheel  rule   49 

table   53 

yarn  diameter,  for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine 

diameter   64 

proportion  of  needle  spacing,  table ....  56 

illustration ...  57 
yarn  number,  for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine 

diameter   64 

circular  latch-needle  for  fiat  work. 

fabric  width,  proportion  of  machine  diameter, 

table   65 

variation  from  theoretical   58 

production,  hnear  yards,  table   76 

square  yards,  needles,  speed  and  yarn 

known,  table   81 

wales  and  courses  known,  table  79 

yarn-cut  rule,  table   53 

yarn  diameter  for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine 

diameter   64 

proportion  of  needle  spacing,  illustration  57 

table   56 

number  for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine 

diameter   64 

circular  spring-needle  loop-wheel. 

cast-off  bur   147 

diametral  revolutions  per  minute   49 

fabric,  dimensions,  table   48 

width,  variation  from  rule   58 

fundamental  formulas,  regular  fabric   45 

gauge,  table   126 

general  formulas,  table   46-47 

invention,  table   265 

knitting  motion  classified,  table   204 

lander  bur   146 

length  of  needle  Hne  filled  by  one  foot  of  yarn ...  70 

needle,  needles,  dimensions  and  data,  table   149 

in  cylinder,  table   154 

-s'elocity   159 

with  two-thread  loops,  illustration   97 

number  in  set   116 


312  Index 


Page 

Machine,  circular  spring-needle  loop-wheel,  power  require- 
ment, table   123 

production,    comparison    with   rib  machines, 

tables   85-87-88 

in  hanks,  table   74 

hnear  yards,  table   76 

relative  to  latch-needle  rib  machine   84 

square  yards,  needles,  speed  and  yarn 

known,  table   81 

wales  and  courses  known,  table ....  79 
proportion  of  yarn  diameter  to  needle  spacing, 

table   56 

sinker  bur   140 

speed  for  balbriggan  and  for  fleece   49 

trouble,  cause  and  remedy   150 

weight  of  leaded  needles  per  thousand,  table ....  149 

width  of  flattened  tube  of  fabric,  table   59 

yarn-cut  rule,  table   53 

yarn-gauge  rule,  table   53 

yarn-gauge  rule,  illustration   52 

table   53 

yarn,  for  different  gauges,  table   129 

velocity   159 

circular  spring-needle  rib. 

fabric  width,  proportion  of  machine  diameter, 

table   65 

production,  linear  yards,  table   76 

square  yards,  for  needles,  speed,  and  yarn 

known,  table   81 

wales  and  courses  known,  table   79 

yam-cut  rule,  table   53 

yarn,  diameter,  for  fabric  width  equal  to  ma- 
chine diameter   64 

proportion  of  needle  spacing,  illustration  57 

of  needle  spacing,  table   56 

number,  for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine 

diameter   64 

diameter,  effect  on  economy   252 

different,  relative  width  of  fabric   63 

effect  on  economy   254 

expense,  knitting   250 

inventions,  table   265 


Index  313 

Page 

Machine,  motion,  effect  on  fabric  twist   108-111 

effect  on  yarn  revolution  in  feeding   Ill 

rib  body,  fabric  width,  variation  from  rule   58 

performance,  table   185 

power   122 

shop,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

straight  jack-sinker. 

fabric  width,  proportion  of  diameter  of  machine, 

table   65 

invention  by  WiUiam  Lee,  table   265 

method  of  casting-off  compared  with  that  of  bur  99 

needle  with  two-thread  loops   97 

production,  linear  yards,  table   76 

yarn-cut  rule,  table   53 

yam-gauge  rule,  table   53 

yarn,  diameter,  for  fabric  as  wide  as  machine,  rule  63 

proportion  of  needle  spacing,  illustration  57 

of  needle  spacing,  table   56 

number  for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight  machine, 

rule   63 

warp,  machine,  invention,  table   265 

course,  definition   14 

which  does  not  twist  yarn,  illustration   110 

which  twists  yarn,  illustration   109 

Machinery,  knitting  mill,  cost  per  set   117 

Measures,  length,  weight,  work,  power   277 

Mensuration,  plane  surfaces   286 

Mill,  Mills,  knitting,  buildings,  cost  per  set   117 

coal  consumption   117 

floor  space   117 

table   118 

power  requirements,  table   122 

proportionate  distribution  of  power,  table   123 

water  consumption   117 

Minimum  weight  per  square  yard   263 

Motion,  anti-clockwise,  defined   1 

illustrated   200 

backward,  defined   1 

clockwise,  defined   1 

fabric,  rule   202 

forward,  defined   1 


314  Index 

Page 

Motion,  knitting,  tabic   204 

conventions   199 

illustrations   202 

determination  from  figured  fabric   236 

left-hand,  defined   1 

machine,  effect  on  yarn  revolution  in  feeding   Ill 

on  fabric  twist   Ill 

right-hand,  defined   1 

winding,  cone   103 

bobbin   103 

Mule  spindles,  number  per  set   116 

N 

Names  of  cams   160 

Napping,  floor-space  allotment,  discussion   120 

table   118 

Needle,  Needles. 

allowable  change  in  leaded-needle  machines   227 

cyUnder,  used  to  designate  fineness  of  fabric  or  machine  21 

difference  in  number  between  cyhnder  sizes   243 

double  sets   20 

gauge  (spacing)  different  standards,  table   126 

in  pattern  to  dupHcate  a  given  design   241 

in  Tompkins  loop-wheel  cylinders   154 

latch,  average  total  circular  travel,  table   185 

vertical  travel,  table   185 

invention,  table   265 

total  reciprocations,  table   185 

with  double  loop,  illustration   100 

leaded,  weight  per  thousand,  table   149 

loop,  definition   15 

number,  changed  to  clear  tucks   245 

in  cylinder,  adapted  to  designing   244 

to  duplicate  a  sample,  table   237 

per  inch,  effect  on  economy   255 

measured  on  cam  surface,  table   175 

on  needle  fine,  table   130 

of  hosiery  machines  and  ribbers   128 

simple  calculations,  table   129 

putting  into  ribber   161 


Index  315 

Page 

Needle,  space,  net,  for  different  gauges,  table   149 

spacing  for  different  gauges,  table   149 

proof  of  relation  to  yarn  diameter   22 

relation  to  yarn  diameter   22-53 

illustration   57 

is  elastic   23 

table   56 

spring,  dimensions  and  data,  table   149 

with  double  loops,  illustration   97 

twist  in  fabric  produced  by  self-feeding  needles   101 

with  long  and  short  latches   156 

Number,  Numbers  (see  also  Yarn  and  Count). 

meaning  in  this  book   1 

squares,  cubes,  square  roots,  cube  roots   278 

Numerical  method  of  designing   223 

O 

Office,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

Operating,  loop-wheel  machine  (see  Machine,  loop- wheel). 

ribber  (see  Ribber). 

Operative  expense,  knitting   251 

P 

Packing,  floor-space  allotment   118 

Pattern,  Pattern  (see  also  Pattern  wheel  and  Designing). 

adapting  to  different  presser  positions   241 

definition   210 

derived  from  design,  illustration   238 

designing   199 

exception  to  rule,  illustrations   247-248 

lap,  effect,  table   226 

latch  needle   153-203 

length,  hmitations   229 

strip,  conversion  into  presser  model   239 

proof   239 

representing  pattern  wheel,  illustrations   240 

wheel,  latch-needle,  selector,  description   207 

Pattern  wheel,  spring  needle. 

advantages  of  making  in  mill  ,   206 

allowance  over  pitch  diameter   207 


316  Index 

Page 

Pattern  wheel,  and  yarn  relation   216 

description   203 

material   203 

must  count  needles   208 

pitch  diameter   207 

positions   209 

illustration   209 

printing  with  needles   210 

relation  of  diameter  and  cuts   206 

represented  by  paper  ring   209 

by  strip  pattern   239 

illustrations   240 

self-clearing   244 

several   246 

diagram,  illustration   246 

size,  changed  to  clear  tucks   245 

limitations   208 

relation  to  number  of  patterns   208 

special,  where  made   206 

strip,  winding   217 

tip,  to  keep  in  position   207 

Performance  of  a  latch-needle  rib-bodj-  machine,  table   185 

Picking,  floor-space,  relative  to  carding  and  spinning   119 

allotments,  comparison   119 

table   118 

Plating  (see  also  Two-thread  knitting)   95 

Plush  (see  Fleeced  goods). 
Pounds  (see  Production). 

Power,  electrical,  table   294 

for  knitting  mill,  cost  per  set   117 

table   122-123 

for  spring-needle  loop-wheel  machines   123 

knitting  machine,  invention,  table   265 

proportionate  distribution  in  a  knitting  m.ill,  table.  .  .  .  123 

required  by  latch-needle  rib  machines,  table   122 

by  upright  bobbin  winder,  table   122 

by  various  machines  used  in  knitting  miUs   121 

transmitted  by  leather  belt,  table   289 

by  shafting,  table   288 

Practical  variations  from  knitting  rules   34 

Preface   iii 


Index  317 

Page 

Presser  (see  also  Pattern  wheel). 

interference  with  lander  bur   147 

plain,  like  raising  cam   207 

positions,  different,  adaptation  of  pattern   241 

Production,  dozen  pairs  per  hour,  rib  tops,  table   82 

factors   66 

hanks,  how  found   70 

loop-wheel  flat  fabric,  table   74 

rib  machine,  example   71 

table   73 

linear  yards,  example   75 

explanation  of  table   74 

factors   70 

table   76-77 

methods  of  calculating,  subject   68 

hanks   69 

importance  of  topic   7 

pounds   69 

yards,  linear   68 

square   68 

of  circular  knitting  machines   66 

pounds,  fleeced-underwear  fabric,  method  of  calcu- 
lating   74 

for  corresponding  change  of  yarn  and  stitch   261 

formula,  importance   43 

of  an  average  rib  machine,  table   185 

rib  fabric,  explanation  of  general  table   70 

general  table   72 

rib  machine,  7.5  hours   252-261 

winder,  Nutaper,  table   114 

upright,  bobbin,  table   115 

relative,  of  different  types  of  knitting  machines   84 

importance.  8 

of  rib  and  flat-work  machines,  tables   85-87-88 

rib-tops,  table   82 

square  yard,  derivation   78 

example  for  table  for  cut  known   80 

explanation  of  table  for  yarn,  needles  and 

speed  known   80 

formula,  importance   45 

how  found   70 


31« 


Index 


Page 

Production,  square  yard,  stitches  constant   31 

table,  for  cut  known   79 

for  yarn  needles  and  speed  known   81 

total  of  an  average  rib  machine   185 

two  methods  for  two-thread  work   71-72 

units   66 

Proportion  of  needle  spacing  to  yarn  diameter,  table   56 

Putting  needles  into  ribber   161 

R 

Range  of  fabrics  from  the  same  gauge  or  cut   138 

Raw  stock,  floor  space  allotment,  table   118 

Regular  fabrics  (see  Fabrics). 

Relation,  Relations,  of  machine  gauge  and  cut   124: 

of  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  to  the  needle  spacing ....  53 
of  rib-fabric  dimensions  for  stitches  constant,  illus- 
tration   269 

of  yarn  number  and  diameter  and  machine  cut   24 

Relative  production  of  different  types  of  knitting  macliines.  84 
Revolutions  (see  also  Diametral  revolutions). 

per  minute,  effect  on  economy   252 

Rib  fabric,  Rib  fabrics  (see  also  Fabric). 

cardigan,  width  variation  from  rule   58 

elasticity,  compared  to  flat   20 

hanks  production  table   73 

illustration  of  face   19 

non-cm-hng  of  edges   20 

pounds-production,  explanation  of  table   70 

table   72 

raveling   20 

regular,  dimensions,  table   40 

explanation  of  formulas   36 

fundamental  formulas   36 

general  formulas,  table   38-39 

relations,  regular,  illustration   270 

yarn  variable,  illustration   269 

structural  difference  from  flat  fabric   19 

tuck,  width  variation  from  rule   58 

twist,  illustration   112 

importance  of  topic   9 


Index  310 

Rib  fabric  twist,  summary   ii^ 

weight  per  square  yard,  explanation  of  table   92 

table   90-91 

width,  compared  to  fiat   20 

of  flattened  tube,  table   59 

proportion  of  machine  diameter,  table   65 

I           topic.   57 

r           variation  from  rule   58 

iiElib  stitch,  dimensions  (see  also  Stitch)   21 

I          illustration   21 

lUib  tops,  dozen  pairs  per  hour,  production  table   82 

explanation  of  production  table   82 

Ribber. 

adjusting  in  general   160 

the  yarn  carrier   171 

circumferences,  Wildman,  at  back  of  needles,  table   184 

convenient  method  of  calculating  the  cut   128 

cut  (see  Cut). 

diameters,  Wildman,  back  to  back  of  needles,  table ....  184 

diametral  revolutions   36-67 

fabric  width  proportion  of  diameter,  table   65 

variation  from  rule   58 

hooking-oti  fabric   164 

locating  sOur-^es  of  trouble .  .  \  f *  .  .  .;.           .     ».  .f.  .  '■.  187 

needle  velocity,  table.  .  .  '.  .  !  .  .  .  /.  .\  .  .  159 
patterns  (see  Patte'-ns). 

power,  table                               .  122 

production,    comparison    v/ith    1-oop-vvheel  lUachine, 

tables   85-87-88 

linear  yards,  table   76 

production,  relative  to  loop-wheel  machine   84 

rib-tops,  table     82-83 

square  yards,  needles,  speed  and  yarn  known,  table  81 

wales,  courses  and  cut  known,  table   79 

putting  needles  in   161 

stitch  adjustment   168 

summary   170 

take-up   166 

yarn  rule,  table   53 

1     cut  rule,  chart,  explanation   49 

illustration   50 


320 


Index 


Page 

Ri})l)('r  yarn,  diameter,  for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine 

diameter,  rule   64 

proportion  of  needle  spacing,  illustration   57 

table   56 

number  for  fabric  width  equal  to  machine  diameter, 

formula.  64 

rule ....  64 

for  different  cuts,  table  *  163 

velocity,  table   159 

Right-hand,  applied  to  motion  meaning   1 

twist  (see  Yarn  and  Fabrics). 
Rule,  Rules  (see  also  P'ormulas). 

afljustment  of  yarn  carrier   171 

a})proximate  cut  of  ribbers  and  footers   138 

designing,  exception,  illustrations   247 

direction  of  flat  fabric  twist,  self -feeding  needles   116 

of  lap   237 

of  rib-fabric  twist  :  .  .  .  113 

of  twist  in  yarn  delivery   113 

extent  of  twist  in  yarn  delivery   113 

fabric  motion   202 

height  of  design   227 

. ,  .length. of ,  loop  next  .to^  tuck  stitch   214 

«  !  :     3Jani  fn  squai-e  yard,,  pitches  constant   31 

machine  which  does  hot  twist  yarn  or  fabric   108 

minimum  weight  per  square  yard   264 

positioHS  of  yarns  for  plating,  illust'-a^tions   97-100 

pattern 'effects  with  double  cam  race   158 

with  long  and  short  latches   157 

practical  variations   34 

importance  of  topic   6 

production,  square  yard,  stitches  constant   31 

range  of  designs   224 

relation  of  diameter  of  yarn  to  needle  spacing   22 

of  width  of  rib  and  flat  fabrics   20 

of  yarn-cut-rulc  constant  and  yarn  diameter   55 

to  needle  spacing   55 

number  and  cut   26 

and  diameter   25 

numbers  for  rib  and  flat  machines   125 

relative  length  of  yarn  used,  different  cuts   88 


Index  321 

Page 

Rule,  relative  length  of  yarn  used,  same  cut  and  velocity.  87 

width  of  fabric  from  different  machines   66 

reversal  of  the  color  of  tuck  figure   216 

revolution  of  yarn  in  self-feeding  needles   105 

single  equivalent  of  three  or  more  yarns   193 

of  two  yarns   192 

stitches  of  different  characteristics   22 

stitch  proportions  for  corresponding  fabrics   21-22 

thickness  of  fabric   26 

tuck  presser  design,  fundamental   221 

twist  in  flat  fabric   108 

width  of  flattened  tube  or  fabric   18 

of  wale   26 

yarn-cut,  yarn-gauge,  different  machines,  table   53 

diameter  for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight  machine   63 

width  equal  to  machine  diameter. ...  64 

for  flat  cotton  fleeced  goods   139 

number  for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight  machine   63 

width  equal  to  machine  diameter   64 

S 

Sample  design  (see  Analysis  and  Design). 

Seaming  and  finishing,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

discussion   120 

required  proportion  of  mill  power,  table   123 

Set,  appHed  to  knitting  mills   116 

Sewing  machines,  number  per  set   116 

Shafting  (see  Hanger  and  Power), 

power  transmission,  table   288 

Single  equivalent  of  two  or  more  yarns   192 

Sinker-blade,  discussion   142 

thickness,  loop-wheel,  table   149 

Sinker  bur   140 

Sinker  loop   15 

Space  allotment  iruknitting  mills   117 

Space,  between  needle  and  blade,  loop-wheel,  table   149 

floor,  allotment  in  knitting  mills,  table   118 

knitting,  expense   249 

floor,  cost  of  maintenance   121 

Speed  (see  also  Diametral-revolutions  and  Velocity). 


322  Index 

Page 

Speed,  condition  for  high  speed   67 

effect  on  economy   252 

of  shafting,  table   288 

Spindle,  Spindles,  mule,  number  per  set   IIG 

power  per  100,  table   121 

winder,  number  per  set   116 

Nutaper,  capacity,  table   114 

formulas,  table   114 

speed   114 

upright  bobbin,  capacity,  table   115 

formulas,  table   115 

speed   115 

Spinning,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

relative  to  picking  and  carding   119 

Square  roots,  table   278 

Square  yard  (see  Yard). 

Squares,  table   278 

Standards  (see  Gauge,  Cut,  Motion,  Diametral-revolutions). 
Stitch,  Stitches. 

accordion,  method  of  knitting   157-158 

adjustment   168 

definition   15 

distortion  in  the  formation   35 

double- tuck,  illustration   212 

effect  on  economy   254 

flat,  plain,  illustration  of  face   16 

marking  for  design  analysis   234 

number  made  by  an  average  rib  machine,  table   185 

per  pound,  formula   92 

of  different  characteristics   22 

of  same  characteristics   21 

per  foot  of  yarn. 

and  yarn  diameter  determine  characteristics  of 

fabric   29 

constant,  yarn  diameter  varied   27 

counting,  in  sample  ,   234 

effect  on  economics   259 

flat,  for  different  yarn  numbers,  table   48 

formula,  importance  of   42 

from  other  fabric  dimensions,  formula   93 

in  the  three  general  fabric  cases   26 


Index  323 

Page 

Stitch,  per  foot  of  yarn  includes  stitches  on  cyhnder  only.  21 

length  occupied  in  machines   68-70 

maximum  and  minimum,  table   186 

relation  to  length  of  yarn  in  loop   19 

to  weight  per  yard  and  yarn  number,  table ...  90 

rib,  for  different  yarn  numbers,  table   40 

varied,  yarn  diameter  constant   32 

per  hour,  determination   78 

per  inch,  counting   168 

per  needle,  of  an  average  rib  machine   185 

per  square  inch,  relation  to  yarn  number   81 

for  different  rib-machine  cuts,  table   79 

'rib,  dimensions   21 

face,  illustration   21 

greatest  number  per  foot  of  yarn,  table   186 

least  number  per  foot  of  yam,  table   186 

side,  illustration   21 

ribber,  adjustment   168 

summary   170 

short,  for  concealed  yarn  in  plated  work   99 

twist  more  than  long   98 

single-tuck,  illustration   211 

structure,  dependent  on  yarn  resilience   35 

tuck,  adjoining  in  one  course,  illustration   213 

description   211 

distort  fabric   213 

hmits   214 

representing  on  paper   230 

Storage,  finished  goods,  floor  space  discussion   120 

floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

raw  stock,  floor-space  discussion   119 

Straight  machine  (see  Machine). 

Strength  of  knit  fabrics   274 

Strip  pattern  (see  Design  and  Pattern). 
Stripes  (see  also  Design  and  Pattern). 

incHned  by  lap  and  by  motion,  table   226 

Suggestions  for  a  course  of  reading   3 

Summary  regarding  twist  of  knit  fabrics   113 

Suppositions  of  Elements  of  Knitting   16 


324 


Index 


T 

Page 

Tables  (see  the  subject  in  this  index,  also  separate  list  at 
front  of  book). 

Take-up,  ribber   166 

Theory  of  knit  fabrics   266 

general  considerations   212 

suggestions   11 

Thickness  of  fabric,  flat,  table   48 

rib,  table   40 

Thicknesses  of  fabric  per  inch,  flat,  table   48 

rib,  table   40 

Thread  (see  Yarn). 

Time,  lost,  causes   70-255-260 

in  different  units,  tables   285 

Trigonometric  f imctions,  natural,  table   282 

Trouble,  cause  and  remedy,  loop  wheel   150 

ribbers   171 

in  rib  knitting,  locating  sources   167 

Tuck  fabric  (see  also  Fabric),  rib,  width  variation  from 

theoretical   58 

Tuck  figure  (see  also  Design). 

white  block  in  mixed  field,  illustration   215 

Tuck  stitch  (see  also  Stitch). 

figures,  latch-needle   153 

Twist  in  fabric  caused  by  yarn  twist   107 

effect  of  machine  motion   108-111 

flat-fabric,  made  with  self-feeding  needles   101 

rule   108 

minor  causes   Ill 

rib   112 

right-hand,  illustration   107 

summary,  flat   116 

general   113 

rib   113 

Twist  in  yam. 

affected  by  dehvery  from  yam  package   103 

determining  extent   102 

extent   102 

illustration  with  strip  of  paper   102 

influence  of  knitting  machine   108 


Index  325 

Page 

Twist  in  yarn,  left-hand   102 

loop-distortion  effect,  illustrations   105-106 

right-hand   101 

Two-thread  knitting. 

advantages   95 

casting-off  from  spring  needle   99 

comparison  of  jack  and  rotary  cast-offs   99 

disadvantages   96 

helps  to  spring-needle  plating   98 

importance  of  topic   9 

latch  needle,  illustration   100 

locating  causes  of  defects   97 

plating   96 

inside  of  rib  fabric   101 

silk  and  worsted   98 

position  of  threads  in  spring  needle   98 

in  latch  needle,  illustration   100 

reduction  of  fabric  twist   113 

rolling  of  yarn  by  rotary  sinker   98 

separating  the  threads  in  feeding   97 

short  stitch  for  concealed  yarn   99 

stitches  twist  more  than  long  stitches   98 

spring  needle,  illustration   97 

topic   95 

tracing  trouble   101 

treatment  of  yarn   98 

two  holes  in  carrier   101  i 

sinker  burs   99 

yarn  difficulties   98 

Types  of  machines  (see  also  Machine). 

Cotton   24-53 

Fouquet   24-202-265 

V 

Variable,  defined   1 

Variation  of  yarn  number  on  rib  machine   67 

Velocity  (see  also  Diametral-revolutions  and  Speed). 

difference  between  that  of  yarn  and  needles,  table   159 

high,  conditions  for   67 

of  needles  in  knitting  machines,  table   159 

of  yarn  feeding  into  knitting  machine,  table   159 


326  Index 

Page 

Vertical  patterns  in  latch-needle  knitting   155 

suggestions   11 

W 

Wale,  Wales,  definition   15 

per  inch   18 

and  courses,  product,  dependent  on  stitches   29 

formula,  importance  of   43 

from  other  fabric  dimensions,  formula   93 

relation  to  courses,  regular  fabrics   32-36— lo 

for   stitches    constant    and  j-arn 

variable   27 

for  yarn  variable,  illustration   28 

size,  comparison   18 

width,  illustration   16 

in  terms  of  yarn  diameter   17 

Washing,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 

general  allowance   119 

heat  requirement   117 

required  proportion  of  mill  power,  table   123 

Water,  for  knitting  mill,  consumption   117 

Weight  per  square  yard,  determined  by  weighing   95 

formula,  derivation   89 

minimum   263 

illustration   264 

of  knit  goods,  stitch  constant   32-43 

table   90-91 

two  yarns  with  different  stitches,  formula   93 

with  the  same  stitches,  formula   93 

Wheel,  pattern  (see  Pattern). 

Width  of  fabric  from  different  machines   63 

of  flattened  tube  of  fabric  for  different  numbers  of  needles 

and  yarn   57 

table   59 

Willkomm,  Gustav   22-26-53 

Winder,  capacity,  Xutaper,  table   114 

upright  bobbin,  table   115 

power,  upright  bobbin,  tables   121-122 

spindles,  number  per  set   116 

Winding  and  knitting,  floor-space  allotment,  table   118 


Index  327 

Page 

Winding  and  knitting,  floor-space  discussion   119 

effect  on  economy   253 

required  proportion  of  mill  power,  table   123 

Y 

Yard,  linear  production,  example   75 

explanation  of  table   74 

factors   70 

table   76-77 

square,  determining  weight  by  weighing   95 

importance  of  topic. .  .  8 

minimum  weight   263 

importance  of  topic   11 

of  cotton  rib  fabric,  explanation  of  weight,  table ....  92 

weight,  table   90 

production,  derivation   78 

example,  wales  and  courses  given   80 

factors   70 

general  table   79 

regular  table   81 

explanation   80 

stitches  constant   31 

total  of  an  average  rib  machine,  table   185 

weight,  formula,  derivation   89 

flat  fabric,  from  table   92 

formula  for  different  yarn  counts   94 

single-thread   92 

transformations   93 

two-thread,  different  stitch   93 

same  stitch  .'   93 

stitch  constant,  proportioning   32 

Yarn,  Yarns,  carrier,  adjusting   171 

conditions  of  feeding   104 

confusion  between  multiple-ply  and  multiple-thread   189 

consumption,  in  miles  by  an  average  rib  machine,  table.  185 

length,  relative,  two  machines   88 

counts  (see  also  Count,  yarn)   187  • 

count  definitions,  importance   9 

counts  used  for  different  kinds  of  yarn   189 

diameter   12 


32 S  Index 

Page 

Yarn  diameter  and  coiLs,  table   196 

stitches  per  foot  determine  characteristics  of  fabric  29 

constant,  stitches  per  foot  varied   32 

distortions   34 

for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight  machine,  rule   63 

width  equal  to  machine  diameter   64 

formula,  importance   41 

from  yarn-cut  rule,  formula   55 

rule   55 

in  the  three  general  fabric  cases   26 

proportion  of  needle  spacing,  illustration   57 

table   56 

proportional  to  stitch  dimensions  in  corresponding 

fabrics   21 

relation,  to  cut   23 

to  needle  spacing   22-53 

illustration   57 

importance  of  topic   7 

is  elastic   23 

proof  '   22 

rule   55 

table   56 

relative,  for  flat  and  rib  machines   125 

topic,  importance   5 

varied,  stitches  per  foot  constant   27 

difficulties,  in  two-thread  work   98 

direction  of  revolution  not  determined  by  machine.  . .  .  Ill 

efifect  on  economy   253 

exchanged  at  tuck  and  plain  feeds   216 

length  fed  in  equal  needle  travel,  formula   87 

in  fabrics  of  the  same  or  different  characteristics ....  22 

in  square  yard,  stitches  constant   31 

of  one  foot  in  needle,  flat  and  rib   70 

making,  required  proportion  of  mill  power   123 

number,  numbers,  convenient  equations  for  determining, 

table   191 

effect  on  economy   257 

for  fabric  as  wide  as  straight  machine,  formula   63 

rule   63 

width  equal  to  machine  diameter,  formula.  ...  64 

rule   64 


Index  329 

Page 

Yarn  for  flat  cotton  fleeced  goods,  table   139 

for  latch-needle  rib  machines   163 

illustration   50 

for  loop-wheel  machines   129 

illustration   52 

formula,  importance  of   41 

from  other  fabric  dimensions,  formula   93 

meaning   1 

one  of  two  equivalent  to  a  given  single  yarn,  table ....  198 

possible  variation,  rib  machine   67 

proportional  to  square  of  cut   67 

relation,  to  cut   25 

to  loop- wheel-machine  gauge,  illustration   52 

to  rib-machine  cut,  illustration   50 

to  stitches  per  square  inch,  formula   81 

to  weight  per  yard  and  stitches,  table   90 

relative,  for  flat  and  rib  machines   125 

rule,  rules,  for  different  machines,  table   53 

yarn  counts,  discussion   193 

for  flat  cotton  fleeced  goods   139 

for  one  of  two  yarns  equivalent  to  a  single  yarn .  192 

for  relation  to  cut  and  gauge,  importance   6 

rib-cut   49 

to  gauge,  loop-wheel   51 

for  single  equivalent  of  two  yarns   192 

of  three  or  more  yarns   193 

single  equivalent,  derivation  of  formula   192 

example   71 

of  two  yarns,  table   198 

to  correspond  to  given  conditions   258 

transformation  table,  importance   10 

variable,  fabric  relations,  illustration   269 

ply,  numbering   189 

relation  to  pattern  wheel   216 

resihence  affects  loop  structure   35 

revolved  in  feeding   105 

shape   34 

silk,  plating   98 

space  between  needle  and  blade,  loop  wheel,  table   149 

stitches  per  foot   19 

strength,  explanation   274 


330  Index 

Page 

Yarn  strength,  fundamental  formula   36-274 

suppositions  for  mathematical  discussion   16 

twist  due  to  deliver}'',  illustration   104 

makes  it  revolve  during  feeding   104 

twisted  by  knitting  machine   108 

during  delivery  from  bobbin  or  cone   103 

velocit}',  less  needle  velocity,  table   159 

table   159 

ways  to  control   98 

worsted,  plating   98 


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